Engineering Tools for Environmental Risk Management: 2. Environmental Toxicology

588 Pages·2015·9.86 MB·English

by  Katalin Gruiz

Engineering Tools for Environmental
Risk Management –2
Engineering Tools for Environmental
Risk Management –2
Environmental Toxicology
Editors
Katalin Gruiz
Department ofApplied Biotechnology and Food Science,Budapest University
ofTechnology and Economics,Budapest,Hungary
Tamás Meggyes
Berlin,Germany
Éva Fenyvesi

Cyclolab,Budapest,Hungary
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Environmentaltoxicology(CRCPress)
Environmentaltoxicology/editorsKatalinGruiz,DepartmentofApplied
BiotechnologyandFoodScience,BudapestUniversityofTechnologyand
Economics,Budapest,Hungary,TamásMeggyes,Berlin,Germany,Éva
Fenyvesi,Cyclolab,Budapest,Hungary.
pagescm.–(Engineeringtoolsforenvironmentalriskmanagement;2)
Includesbibliographicalreferencesandindex.
ISBN978-1-138-00155-8(hardback:alk.paper)–ISBN978-1-315-77877-8(ebook)
1. Environmentaltoxicology. 2. Pollutants–Toxicitytesting. I. Gruiz,Katalin.
II. Meggyes,T.(Tamás) III. Fenyvesi,Éva. IV.Title.
RA1226.E56855 2015
615.9’02–dc23
2014048002
Publishedby: CRCPress/Balkema
P.O.Box11320,2301EHLeiden,TheNetherlands
e-mail:[email protected]
www.crcpress.com–www.taylorandfrancis.com
ISBN:978-1-138-00155-8(Hardback)
ISBN:978-1-315-77877-8(eBookPDF)
Table of contents
Preface xvii
Listofabbreviations xix
Abouttheeditors xxix
1 Environmentaltoxicology–Ageneraloverview 1
K.GRUIZ
1 Introduction,basicdefinitions 1
1.1 Toxicologyanditsrole 3
1.2 Regulatorytoxicologyforchemicalsubstancesand
contaminatedland 9
1.3 Futureofenvironmentaltoxicology 12
1.3.1 Moleculartechnologies 13
1.3.2 Cell-basedtechnologies 15
1.3.3 Computationaltoxicology 15
1.4 Whatenvironmentmeansinthecontextoftoxicology 16
1.5 Environmentaltoxicologyversushumantoxicology 17
1.6 Animalstudies 18
1.7 Invitrocontrainvivo:alternativetestmethods 20
1.8 Evidence-basedtoxicology 23
2 Adverseeffectstobemeasuredbyenvironmentaltoxicology 23
2.1 Hazardouseffectsofchemicalsubstances 24
2.2 Toxiceffectsofchemicalsubstances 25
2.3 Carcinogeniceffects 31
2.4 Mutageniceffects 32
2.5 Reprotoxicity 32
2.6 Persistentandverypersistentsubstances 33
2.7 Bioaccumulativeandverybioaccumulativesubstances 33
2.8 Emergingpollutants 34
3 Interactionofachemicalsubstancewithlivingorganisms 36
3.1 Dose–responserelationship 39
3.2 Testendpoints:theresultsoftheenvironmentaltoxicitytest 42
3.3 Classificationofenvironmentaltoxicologicaltests 44
3.3.1 Testtypeaccordingtotheaimofthetest 44
3.3.2 Testorganisms 45
vi Table of contents
3.3.3 Testdesign 48
3.3.4 Mostcommonlymeasuredendpoints 49
3.3.5 Environmentalcompartmentsandphasestotest 50
3.3.6 Aimsofenvironmentaltoxicitytests 51
3.4 Environmentaltoxicologyinrelationtohazardand
riskassessment 51
3.4.1 Testinghazardorrisk? 51
3.4.2 Standardizedorcustomizedtestmethods? 53
3.4.3 Testingormodeling?–QSARand
environmentaltoxicology 55
3.5 Statisticalevaluationofecotoxicologicaltests 60
3.5.1 Evaluationofacutetoxicitytests 60
3.5.2 Dataanalysisforchronictoxicitytests 62
3.5.3 Dataanalysisofmultispeciestoxicitytests 62
3.6 Standardizationandinternationalacceptanceofnewly
developedtoxicitytests 63
2 Fate and behavior of chemical substances in
the environment 71
K.GRUIZ,M.MOLNÁR,ZS.M.NAGY&CS.HAJDU
1 Introduction 71
2 Interactionofthecontaminantswithenvironmentalphases 74
2.1 Transportandpartitioning 75
2.1.1 Partitioningbetweenairandwater 75
2.1.2 Partitioningbetweensolidandwater 76
2.1.3 Transportmodels 77
2.2 Chemicalinteractionsbetweenchemicalsubstancesand
theenvironment 81
2.2.1 Photolysis 81
2.2.2 Hydrolysis 82
2.2.3 Chemicaloxidationandreduction 83
3 Interactionsofchemicalsubstances–withthebiota 84
3.1 Biodegradationandbiotransformation 84
3.1.1 Classificationofenvironmentalfateofchemicalsfor
regulatorypurposes 84
3.1.2 Biodegradation–definitions 86
3.1.3 Biodegradation–theprocess 87
3.1.4 QSARforbiodegradation 88
3.1.5 Aimsoftestingbiodegradation 90
3.1.6 Measurementendpointsforcharacterizing
biodegradation 91
3.1.7 Standardizedbiodegradabilitytestmethodsfor
chemicalsubstances 93
3.1.8 Measuringbiodegradationinsoil 94
3.1.9 Soilrespiration,biodegradativeactivityofthe
soil–problem-specificapplications 95
Table of contents vii
3.2 Bioaccumulation 102
3.2.1 Definitions 102
3.2.2 Bioaccumulativepotentialofchemicals 104
3.2.3 QSARforbioaccumulation 106
3.2.4 Testingbioaccumulation 107
3.2.5 Standardizedtestsformeasuringbioaccumulation 109
3.2.6 Fielddeterminationofbioaccumulation 112
3.3 Bioleaching 113
4 Availabilityofcontaminantsforenvironmentalactors 114
5 Utilizingfatepropertiesofchemicalstoreducetheirrisk
intheenvironment 117
5.1 Environmentaltransportandfateprocesseschange
contaminantrisk 117
3 Human toxicology 125
K.GRUIZ
1 Introduction 125
1.1 Adverseeffectsofchemicalsonhumans 127
1.2 Testingtheadverseeffectsofchemicalsonhumans 130
2 Testorganismsforhumantoxicologypurposes 132
2.1 Microorganismsusedinhumantoxicitytesting 132
2.2 Isolatedcells,tissueculturesinhumantoxicology 132
2.3 Loweranimalsinhumantoxicology 133
2.4 Birds 133
2.5 Mammals 134
2.6 3Rinanimaltesting 135
3 Toxicityendpointsandmethods 136
3.1 Acutetoxicity 136
3.1.1 Animaltestsforacutesystemictoxicity 137
3.1.2 Non-animal,invitrotestsforacutesystemictoxicity 137
3.2 Repeated-doseandorgantoxicitytesting 138
3.2.1 Animaltestmethodsforrepeated-doseand
organtoxicity 139

3.2.2 Alternativemethodsforrepeated-doseandorgan
toxicitytesting 140
3.3 Genotoxicity 141
3.3.1 Invivoanimaltestsforassessingpotentialheritable
genotoxicity 141
3.3.2 OECDtestguidelinesforinvitrogenotoxicityand
mutagenicitytesting 142
3.3.3 Newinvivogenotoxicitytests 142
3.3.4 QSARforgenotoxicityandgenotoxiccarcinogenicity 145
3.4 Chronictoxicity 145
3.4.1 Chronictoxicitytestingmethodsonanimals 146
3.5 Carcinogenicity 146
3.5.1 Animalmethodsforcarcinogenicitytesting 147
3.5.2 Non-animaltestingofcarcinogenicity 147
viii Table of contents
3.6 Reproductiveanddevelopmentaltoxicity 148
3.6.1 Animaltestsforreproductiveanddevelopmental
toxicity 149
3.6.2 Invitromethodsforreproductiveanddevelopmental
toxicity 149
3.7 Dermalpenetration 151
3.7.1 Animaltestingofdermalpenetration 151
3.7.2 Invitrotestingofdermalpenetration 151
3.8 Skinirritationandcorrosion 152
3.8.1 Animaltestingofskinirritationandcorrosion 152
3.8.2 Alternative,non-animaltestmethodsforskinirritation
andcorrosion 152
3.9 Skinsensitization 154
3.9.1 Skinsensitization:animaltestsforregulatory
requirements 154
3.9.2 Non-animalalternativemethods 154
3.10 Eyeirritationandcorrosion 155
3.10.1 Animaltestingofeyeirritationandcorrosion
onrabbits 155
3.10.2 Non-animalalternativemethodsforevaluatingeye
irritationandcorrosion 156
3.11 Toxicokinetics,pharmacokineticsandmetabolism 156
3.11.1 Testingoftoxicokinetics,pharmacokineticsand
metabolismonanimals 158
3.11.2 Invitrodermaltesting 159
3.12 Neurotoxicity 159
3.12.1 Animaltestingofneurotoxicity 160
3.12.2 Invitromodelsforneurotoxicologystudiesandtesting 160
3.13 Endocrinetoxicityanddisruption 161
3.13.1 Animaltestsforscreeningendocrinedisruption 161
3.13.2 Validatednon-animalalternativesforendocrine
disruptoractivity 161
3.13.3 TheUSEPAendocrinedisruptorscreeningprogram 162
3.14 Phototoxicity 164
4 Aquatic toxicology 171
K.GRUIZ&M.MOLNÁR
1 Introductiontoaquatictoxicology 171
2 Humanandecosystemexposuretoaquatichazards 174
3 Somecommonlyusedaquatictestorganismsfortesting
adverseeffects 180
3.1 Microorganisms:bacteria,algaeandprotozoa 180
3.2 Fresh-watermacroplants 184
3.3 Fresh-waterinvertebrates 185
3.4 Aquaticvertebrates 190
3.5 Sediment-dwellingorganisms 192
Table of contents ix
4 Measuringadverseeffectsofchemicalsubstancesonthe
aquaticecosystem 194
5 Somecommonlyusedaquatictestmethods 196
5.1 OECDguidelinesfortestingchemicalsinaquaticenvironment:
water,sediment,wastewater 196
5.2 Water-testingmethodsstandardizedbytheInternational
OrganizationforStandardization 198
5.2.1 Standardizedbacterialtestsfortoxicitytestingofwater
andwaste-water 199
5.2.2 Standardizedalgalandplanttestsforwaters 199
5.2.3 Invertebratesusingstandardmethodsfortestingwater 201
5.2.4 Standardizedfishtestsforwaterandwaste-water 201
5.2.5 Ecologicalassessmentofsurfacewaters 201
6 Non-animaltestingofaquatictoxicity 203
7 Testingsediment 203
8 Sewageandsewagesludgetests 208
9 Testingwasteusingan‘Ecotox’testbattery 209
10 Non-standardizedbioassaysandotherinnovativetestmethods 212
11 Multispeciesandmicrocosmtestmethodsforaquatictoxicity 217
12 DescriptionofTetrahymenapyriformisbioassay 220
12.1 Experimental 221
12.2 Evaluationandinterpretationoftheresults 222
5 Terrestrial toxicology 229
K.GRUIZ,M.MOLNÁR,V.FEIGL,CS.HAJDU,ZS.M.NAGY,O.KLEBERCZ,
I.FEKETE-KERTÉSZ,É.UJACZKI&M.TOLNER
1 Introduction 229
2 Terrestrialtestorganisms 237
2.1 Soil-livingbacteriaandfungiastestorganisms 238
2.2 Terrestrialplantsforsoiltoxicitytesting 242
2.3 Soilfaunamembersastestorganisms 246
3 Measuringterrestrialtoxicity:endpointsandmethods 254
3.1 Soilbiodiversity 255

3.2 Evolutionaryconvergencephenomenon 258
3.3 Terrestrialbioassaysfortestingchemicalsubstancesand
contaminatedsoil 259
4 Standardizedandnon-standardizedtestmethods 260
4.1 OECDstandardsfortestingchemicalsubstancesinsoiland
dungwithterrestrialorganisms 260
4.2 ISOandotherstandardsfortestingsoilandsediment 260
4.3 Testingwaste:aterrestrialtestbatteryforsolidwaste 263
5 Non-standardterrestrialtoxicitytestmethods 263
5.1 Someaspectsofproblem-orientedandsite-specificsoiltesting 264
5.1.1 Soilcommunityresponse 265
5.1.2 Conceptsforcharacterizingsoilfunctioningandhealth 266
5.1.3 Aimsoftestingwholesoilresponse 266
x Table of contents
5.1.4 Consequencesoftheeffectofsoilmatrixonthetest
methodology 267
5.1.5 Fieldassessmentorlaboratorytesting? 271
5.2 Ecologicalassessment:fieldtestingofhabitatquality,diversity
ofspeciesandabundanceofindicatororganisms 272
5.2.1 Abundanceanddiversityofsoilmicrobiota 272
5.2.2 Theuseofcarbonsubstrateutilizationpatternsfor
ecotoxicitytesting 273
5.2.3 Dung-dwellingorganisms,anotyetstandardized
fieldstudy 273
5.2.4 Effectsofpollutantsonearthwormsinfieldsituations:
avoidance 274
5.3 Non-standardizedcontactbioassays:descriptionofsometests 275
5.3.1 Singlespeciesbacterialcontacttests 275
5.3.2 Singlespeciesanimalcontacttests 278
5.3.3 Planttests 279
5.3.4 Soilasatestorganism 280
6 Multispeciesterrestrialtests 282
6.1 Classificationofmultispeciessoiltests 282
6.1.1 Terrestrialmicrocosmsystemformeasuring
respiration 283
6.1.2 Terrestrialmicrocosmforsubstrate-inducedrespiration
technique(SIR) 283
6.1.3 Terrestrialmodelecosystems(TME) 284
6.1.4 Thecottonstripassay 285
6.1.5 Soillitterbag 285
6.1.6 Pitfalltraps 286
6.1.7 Baitlamina 286
6.1.8 Soilinjar 287
6.1.9 Soillysimeters 288
6.2 Characteristicsofmultispeciestoxicitytests 290
6.3 Evaluationandmonitoringofmicrocosms 290
7 Microcalorimetry–asensitivemethodforsoiltoxicitytesting 291
7.1 Backgroundofmicrocalorimetricheatproductionbyliving
organisms 291
7.2 Experimentalsetup 292
7.3 HeatresponseofFolsomiacandidatotheeffectof
dieseloil 293
7.4 HeatresponseofPanagrellusredivivusoncontaminatedsoil 294
7.5 HeatresponseofSinapisalbatotheeffectoftoxicants
insoil 296
7.6 HeatproductionresponseofAzomonasagilistotoxicants 296
7.7 Evaluationandinterpretationofthemicrocalorimetricheat
productionresults 299
7.8 Summaryofmicrocalorimetrictoxicitytesting:experiencesand
outlook 299
7.9 Acknowledgementtomicrocalorimetryresearch 301
Table of contents xi
6 Advanced methods for chemical characterization of
soil pollutants 311
GY.ZÁRAY&I.VARGA
1 Introduction 311
2 Analyticalmethodsforthedeterminationofinorganiccompounds 313
2.1 ICP-basedanalyticalmethods 313
2.1.1 Samplepreparation 313
2.1.2 Inductivelycoupledplasmaasphotonandionsource 313
2.1.3 Analyticalfiguresofmerit 316
2.2 X-rayfluorescencespectrometry 318
2.2.1 Samplepreparation 318
2.2.2 Basicequipmentandset-upforXRFanalysis 319
2.2.3 X-raysources 319
2.2.4 Detectors 320
2.2.5 Quantification 322
2.2.6 Analyticalfiguresofmerit 322
2.2.7 ComparisonofXRFandICP-basedanalytical
techniques 323
3 Analyticalmethodsforanalysisoforganicpollutants 323
3.1 Samplepretreatment 324
3.2 Extractionofanalytesfromsoilsamples 324
3.2.1 Supercriticalfluidextraction(SFE) 324
3.2.2 Microwaveassistedextraction(MAE) 325
3.2.3 Pressurizedliquidextraction(PLE) 326
3.2.4 Ultrasonicassistedextraction(UAE) 327
3.3 Cleanupprocess 328
3.4 Preconcentration/enrichmentofanalytes 328
3.5 Separationanddetectiontechniques 328
3.6 Applications 329
3.6.1 Pesticideanalysis 329
3.6.2 Veterinarypharmaceuticals 330
3.6.3 Petroleumhydrocarbons 330
3.7 Recentdevelopmentsandfuturetrends 331

7 Bioaccessibility and bioavailability in risk assessment 337
CS.HAJDU&K.GRUIZ
1 Introduction 337
2 Managingbioaccessibilityandbioavailabilityofcontaminantsinthe
environment 341
2.1 Mobility,bioaccessibility,bioavailabilityandrisk
assessment 343
2.2 Riskreductioninviewofmobilityandbioavailability 344
3 Bioavailabilityandbioaccessibility–definitions 345
3.1 Definitionsandmechanisms 346
3.2 Contaminants’locationandforminsoilandtherelated
accessibilityandavailability 348