Table Of Content

Engineering Surveying Engineering Surveying Sixth Edition W. Schofield Former Principal Lecturer, Kingston University M. Breach Principal Lecturer, Nottingham Trent University AMSTERDAM • BOSTON (cid:127) HEIDELBERG (cid:127) LONDON (cid:127) NEWYORK (cid:127) OXFORD PARIS (cid:127) SANDIEGO (cid:127) SANFRANCISCO (cid:127) SINGAPORE (cid:127) SYDNEY (cid:127) TOKYO Butterworth-HeinemannisanimprintofElsevier Butterworth-HeinemannisanimprintofElsevier LinacreHouse,JordanHill,OxfordOX28DP,UK 30CorporateDrive,Suite400,Burlington,MA01803,USA Firstedition1972 Secondedition1978 Thirdedition1984 Fourthedition1993 Reprinted1995,1997,1998 Fifthedition2001 Reprinted2002 Sixthedition2007 Copyright©2007,W.SchofieldandM.Breach.PublishedbyElsevierLtd.Allrightsreserved TherightofW.SchofieldandM.Breachtobeidentifiedastheauthorsofthisworkhasbeen assertedinaccordancewiththeCopyright,DesignsandPatentsAct1988 Nopartofthispublicationmaybereproduced,storedinaretrievalsystem ortransmittedinanyformorbyanymeanselectronic,mechanical,photocopying, recordingorotherwisewithoutthepriorwrittenpermissionofthepublisher PermissionsmaybesoughtdirectlyfromElsevier’sScience&TechnologyRights DepartmentinOxford,UK:phone(+44)(0)1865843830;fax(+44)(0)1865853333; email:permissions@elsevier.com.Alternativelyyoucansubmityourrequestonlineby visitingtheElsevierwebsiteathttp://elsevier.com/locate/permissions,andselecting ObtainingpermissiontouseElseviermaterial Notice Noresponsibilityisassumedbythepublisherforanyinjuryand/ordamagetopersons orpropertyasamatterofproductsliability,negligenceorotherwise,orfromanyuse oroperationofanymethods,products,instructionsorideascontainedinthematerial herein.Becauseofrapidadvancesinthemedicalsciences,inparticular,independent verificationofdiagnosesanddrugdosagesshouldbemade BritishLibraryCataloguinginPublicationData Schofield,W.(Wilfred) Engineeringsurveying –6thed. 1. Surveying I. TitleII. Breach,Mark 526.9’02462 LibraryofCongressCataloging-in-PublicationData LibraryofCongressControlNumber:2006933363 ISBN–13:978-0-7506-6949-8 ISBN–10:0-7506-6949-7 ForinformationonallButterworth-Heinemannpublications visitourwebsiteatwww.books.elsevier.com PrintedandboundinUK 07 08 09 10 11 11 10 9 8 7 6 5 4 3 2 1 Contents Prefacetothesixthedition ix Prefacetothefifthedition xi Acknowledgements xiii 1 Basicconceptsofsurveying 1 Definition–Principles–Basicmeasurements–Controlnetworks–Locatingposition– Plottingdetail–Summary 2 Erroranduncertainty 18 Unitsofmeasurement–Significantfigures–Roundingnumbers–Errorsinmeasurement– Indicesofprecision–Weight–Rejectionofoutliers–Combinationoferrors 3 Verticalcontrol 42 Introduction–Levelling–Definitions–Curvatureandrefraction–Equipment–Instrument adjustment–Principleoflevelling–Sourcesoferror–Closuretolerances–Error distribution–Levellingapplications–Reciprocallevelling–Preciselevelling– Digitallevelling–Trigonometricallevelling–HeightingwithGPS 4 Distancemeasurement 107 Tapes–Fieldwork–Distanceadjustment–Errorsintaping–Accuracies– Electromagneticdistancemeasurement(EDM)–Measuringprinciples–Meteorological corrections–Geometricalreductions–Errors,checkingandcalibration–Othererror sources–Instrumentspecifications–DevelopmentsinEDM 5 Anglemeasurement 160 Thetheodolite–Instrumentalerrors–Instrumentadjustment–Fieldprocedure–Measuring angles–Sourcesoferror 6 Conventionalcontrolsurveys 189 Planerectangularcoordinates–Traversing–Triangulation–Networks 7 Rigorousmethodsofcontrol 227 Introduction–Principleofleastsquares–Leastsquaresappliedtosurveying– Linearization–Derivationoftheleastsquaresformulae–Parametervector–Design matrixandobservationsvector–Weightmatrix–Erroranalysis–Variance-covariance matrixoftheparameters–Errorellipses–Standarderrorsofderivedquantities–Blunder detection–Reliabilityoftheobservations–Summaryofmatrixrelationshipsand applicationsofoutputstatistics–Networkdesign–Practicalconsiderations– Estimationinthreedimensions vi Contents 8 Position 283 Introduction–Referenceellipsoid–Coordinatesystems–Localsystems–Computation ontheellipsoid–DatumTransformations–Orthomorphicprojection–TheUniversal TransverseMercatorProjection–OrdnanceSurveyNationalGrid–Practicalapplications 9 Satellitepositioning 319 Introduction–GPSsegments–GPSreceivers–Satelliteorbits–Basicprincipleofposition fixing–Differencingdata–GPSobservingmethods–Errorsources–GPSsurvey planning–Transformationbetweenreferencesystems–Datums–Virtualreferencestations andnetworkedGPS–GLONASS–GPSsystemfuture–Wideareaaugmentationsystem (WAAS)–Europeangeostationarynavigationoverlayservice(EGNOS)–Galileo– Thefutureforsurveyorsandengineers–Applications 10 Curves 370 Circularcurves–Settingoutcurves–Compoundandreversecurves–Shortand/or small-radiuscurves–Transitioncurves–Setting-outdata–Cubicspiralandcubic parabola–Curvetransitionalthroughout–Theosculatingcircle–Verticalcurves 11 Earthworks 443 Areas–Partitionofland–Cross-sections–Dipandstrike–Volumes–Mass-hauldiagrams 12 Settingout(dimensionalcontrol) 482 Responsibilityonsite–Responsibilityofthesetting-outengineer–Protectionand referencing–Basicsetting-outproceduresusingcoordinates–Useofgrids–Setting outbuildings–Controllingverticality–Controllinggradingexcavation–Rotating lasers–Laserhazards–Routelocation 13 Undergroundsurveying 507 Opticalmethods–Mechanicalmethods–Gyro-theodolite–Lineandlevel 14 Massdatamethods 543 Introduction–Photogrammetry–Geometryoftheaerialphotograph–Groundcontrol– Stereoscopy–Restitutionsystems–Terrestrialphotogrammetry–Digital‘softcopy’ photogrammetry–Laserscanners–Comparisonofphotogrammetryandlaser scanning–Inertialsystems–IntegrationofGPSandinertialsystems AppendixA Anintroductiontomatrixalgebra 604 Thematrixanditsalgebra–Additionandsubtraction–Multiplication–Nullmatrix– Transposeofamatrix–Identitymatrix–Diagonalmatrix–Thedeterminantofa matrix–Theinverseofamatrix–Singularity,order,rankanddegeneracy– Orthogonalmatrices–Rotationmatrices–Eigenvaluesandeigenvectors Index 615 Wilf Schofield 1933–2006 ThisisthesixtheditionofWilfSchofield’sbookwhichheinvitedmetosharewithhim.Afewweeksafter westartedwork,Wilfwasdiagnosedwithcancer.Inspiteofthisheworkedtirelesslyontheprojectbut, sadly,wasovercomebeforethiseditioncametopress. Wilfbroughttothis,andpreviouseditions,awealthofexperienceasaminesurveyorandasanacademic. Hewas,atheart,ateacherwithapassionforhissubjectandthiscomesoverintheclarityofhiswriting. Hewillberememberedbycolleaguesandformerpupilsnotonlyforhistechnicalabilitybutalsoforhis incisivewit,hisstorytellingandhisdistinctiveandcommandingappearance. MarkBreach Preface to the sixth edition The subject of engineering surveying continues to develop at a rapid pace and this has been reflected inthemanyandsubstantialchangesthathavebeenmadeinupdatingandrevisingthepreviousedition. Theauthorshavetakentheopportunitytoexamineindetailallthepreviousmaterialmakingbothminor andmajorchangesthroughout.Asalways, decisionshavetobemadeastowhatshouldberetainedthat isstillcurrentandrelevantandtoidentifythematerialthatneedstobecuttomakewayfornewtextto describetheemergingtechnologies. Thesubjectofsurveycontrolisnowtreatedinmuchgreaterdepth.Thechapterontraditionalmethods still in current practice is followed by a whole new chapter on rigorous methods of control, that is, the application of the technique of least squares in the determination of coordinates and their quality. This topicwasdroppedfromthefiftheditionofthisbookbutnowreappearsinacompletelyrewrittenchapter whichreflectsmodernsoftwareapplicationsofatechniquethatunderliesmuchofsatellitepositioningand inertialnavigationaswellasrigoroussurveycontrol. Satellitepositioningbringsuptodatethemanyadvancesthathavebeenmadeinthedevelopmentof GPS and its applications, as well as looking to the changes now taking place with GLONASS and the EuropeanGALILEOsystems. Thechapteronundergroundsurveyingincludesanenlargedsectionongyrotheodoliteswhichreflects newtechniquesthathavebeendevelopedandtheapplicationofautomationinmoderninstrumentation. The final chapter on mass data methods brings together substantial sections on simple applications of photogrammetrywiththerevolutionarynewtechnologyoflaserscanningbyaerialandterrestrialmeans. Inertialtechnology,onceseenasanemergingstandalonesurveyingtechnology,nowreappearsinacom- pletelynewguiseaspartofaircraftpositioningandorientationsystemsusedtoaidthecontrolofaerial photogrammetryandlaserscanners. Inspiteofallthisnewmaterialtheauthorshavebeenabletokeepthesamelevelofworkedexamples andexaminationquestionsthathavebeensopopularinpreviouseditions.Weareconfidentthatthisnew editionwillfindfavourwithstudentsandpractitionersalikeintheareasofengineeringandconstruction surveying,civilengineering,miningandinmanylocalauthorityapplications.Thisbookwillprovevaluable forundergraduatestudyandprofessionaldevelopmentalike. MarkBreach