Engineering Energy Storage

231 Pages·2017·10.433 MB·English

by  Odne Stokke Burheim

ENGINEERING
ENERGY STORAGE
ODNE STOKKE BURHEIM
ENGINEERING
ENERGY
STORAGE

ENGINEERING
ENERGY
STORAGE
ODNESTOKKEBURHEIM
AcademicPressisanimprintofElsevier
125LondonWall,LondonEC2Y5AS,UnitedKingdom
525BStreet,Suite1800,SanDiego,CA92101-4495,UnitedStates
50HampshireStreet,5thFloor,Cambridge,MA02139,UnitedStates
TheBoulevard,LangfordLane,Kidlington,OxfordOX51GB,UnitedKingdom
Copyright©2017ElsevierInc.Allrightsreserved.
Nopartofthispublicationmaybereproducedortransmittedinanyformorbyanymeans,
electronicormechanical,includingphotocopying,recording,oranyinformationstorageand
retrievalsystem,withoutpermissioninwritingfromthepublisher.Detailsonhowtoseek
permission,furtherinformationaboutthePublisher’spermissionspoliciesandourarrangements
withorganizationssuchastheCopyrightClearanceCenterandtheCopyrightLicensingAgency,
canbefoundatourwebsite:www.elsevier.com/permissions.
Thisbookandtheindividualcontributionscontainedinitareprotectedundercopyrightbythe
Publisher(otherthanasmaybenotedherein).
Notices
Knowledgeandbestpracticeinthisfieldareconstantlychanging.Asnewresearchandexperience
broadenourunderstanding,changesinresearchmethods,professionalpractices,ormedical
treatmentmaybecomenecessary.
Practitionersandresearchersmustalwaysrelyontheirownexperienceandknowledgeinevaluating
andusinganyinformation,methods,compounds,orexperimentsdescribedherein.Inusingsuch
informationormethodstheyshouldbemindfuloftheirownsafetyandthesafetyofothers,
includingpartiesforwhomtheyhaveaprofessionalresponsibility.
Tothefullestextentofthelaw,neitherthePublishernortheauthors,contributors,oreditors,
assumeanyliabilityforanyinjuryand/ordamagetopersonsorpropertyasamatterofproducts
liability,negligenceorotherwise,orfromanyuseoroperationofanymethods,products,
instructions,orideascontainedinthematerialherein.
LibraryofCongressCataloging-in-PublicationData
AcatalogrecordforthisbookisavailablefromtheLibraryofCongress
BritishLibraryCataloguing-in-PublicationData
AcataloguerecordforthisbookisavailablefromtheBritishLibrary
ISBN:978-0-12-814100-7
ForinformationonallAcademicPresspublications
visitourwebsiteathttps://www.elsevier.com/books-and-journals
Publisher:JoeHayton
AcquisitionEditor:LisaReading
EditorialProjectManager:CharlotteRowley
ProductionProjectManager:PaulPrasadChandramohan
Designer:MarkRogers
TypesetbyVTeX
CONTENTS
Preface ix
1. EnergyStorage 1
1.1. ABriefHistoryofEnergy 1
1.2. RenewableEnergyandEnergyStorage 4
1.3. EnergyandPower 6
1.3.1. EnergyandPowerforTransportation 9
1.3.2. EfficiencyandPropagationofEfficiencyLosses 10
Problems 12
Solutions 12
2. GeneralThermodynamics 15
2.1. TheFirstLawandInternalEnergyU 15
2.2. SecondLawandEntropy 17
2.2.1. ReversibleAdiabaticMustBeIsentropic 18
2.2.2. TheCarnotEfficiencyLimitation 19
2.3. PressureandVolume 20
2.4. EnthalpyandControlVolumes 23
2.5. GibbsFreeEnergyandChemicalPotential 25
Problems 27
Solutions 27
3. MechanicalEnergyStorage 29
3.1. Introduction 29
3.2. MechanicalEnergyStorage 29
3.2.1. Flywheels 30
3.2.2. HydroelectricEnergyStorage 36
Problems 44
Solutions 45
4. ThermalEnergyStorage 47
4.1. Heatvs.ThermalEnergy 48
4.2. SensibleHeat 48
4.3. LatentHeat 49
4.4. ReactionHeat 52
4.5. EutecticandNoneutecticHeat 57
Problems 60
Solutions 60
v
vi Contents
5. ThermomechanicalEnergyStorage 63
5.1. Thermodynamics:Heat,Work,andStates 63
5.2. CompressedAirEnergyStorage 63
5.2.1. CryogenicEnergyStorage 67
5.2.2. OtherCompressedGases 67
5.3. SolarPowerTowers 68
Problems 71
Solutions 72
6. ElectrochemicalEnergyStorage 75
6.1. Introduction 75
6.2. NernstEquationandtheElectromotoricForce,EMF 78
6.2.1. TheFreeEnergyofaReaction 78
6.2.2. TheElectrochemicalFreeEnergy 80
6.2.3. Half-CellReactions 81
6.2.4. Ohm’sLaw:PowerandPotential 82
6.3. ConcentrationandNernstEquation 86
6.3.1. ActivityofComponentsandSpecies 86
6.3.2. EMFandConcentration 88
6.3.3. ConcentrationPolarizationOverpotentials 90
6.3.4. LiquidJunctionPotential 93
6.4. ElectrodeReactionKinetics 99
6.4.1. TheEquilibriumReactionRateandConstant 99
6.4.2. Butler–VolmerOverpotentials 101
6.4.3. TheTafelOverpotential:AnApproximation 102
6.4.4. OverpotentialsforCompetingElectrodeReactions 104
Problems 107
Solutions 108
7. SecondaryBatteries 111
7.1. BatteryTerminology 111
7.2. Red-oxCellsandOxidationNumber 113
7.3. ChargingandDischargePowerandEfficiency 115
7.4. BatteryCapacity 116
7.5. BatteryFootprint 118
7.5.1. AccumulatedWeight 119
7.5.2. EnvironmentalFootprint 123
7.6. BatteryChemistry 124
7.6.1. LeadAcidBattery 124
7.6.2. NiCdBatteries 125
7.6.3. NiMeHBatteries 126
7.6.4. ZEBRABatteries 127
7.7. Li-ionBatteries 128
Contents vii
7.8. FlowCellBatteries 137
7.8.1. RedOxFlowBatteries 139
7.8.2. ConcentrationFlowBatteries 141
Problems 141
Solutions 142
8. HydrogenforEnergyStorage 147
8.1. HydrogenProduction.WaterElectrolysis 151
8.1.1. WaterElectrolysisThermodynamics 151
8.1.2. ElectrolysisTechnologies 154
8.1.3. HydrogenfromCoalandNaturalGas 165
8.2. HydrogenStorageandDistribution 165
8.2.1. ThermodynamicPropertiesofHydrogen 166
8.2.2. HydrogenStorageTechnologies 168
8.3. ReuseofHydrogen:FuelCells 175
8.3.1. FuelCellThermodynamics 176
8.3.2. Fuelcelltechnologies 177
Problems 189
Solutions 190
9. SupercapacitorsforEnergyStorageandConversion 193
9.1. ConventionalCapacitors 193
9.2. Supercapacitors 196
9.3. DeployingSupercapacitors 201
9.4. Pseudo-andHybridSupercapacitors 203
Problems 204
Solutions 204
A. SymbolsandConstants 207
RomanLetters 207
GreekLetters 208
Constants 208
B. AdiabaticCompressionofAir 209
C. Para-andOrtho-Hydrogen 213
Bibliography 215
Index 221
This page intentionally left blank
PREFACE
The front cover of this book illustrates the three branches of energy pro-
duction,distribution,andconsumption.Theseareasareoverlappingbythe
fieldofenergystorage.Bytheintroductionofrenewableenergytechnolo-
gies these three areas will become closer and more interconnected. This
is so because most renewables are electric, intermittent, and often out of
phase with the demand in energy consumption. It is energy storage that
can balance this. Thus energy storage is a growing field for engineering
and research. Understanding the elements of engineering energy storage is
needed now and ever more in the future.
Energy is the backbone of our society. Today, we have a fossil-based
economy. More than eighty percent of the energy consumption today is
coal,oil,andgas.Thisiswhatdrivesoureconomy.Itisfundamentalinpro-
viding our society with the services needed, whether it is transportation,
food production, health care, entertainment, or any other. However, the
threat from climate changes from the emissions from our economy back-
bone, coal oil, and gas, means that we need to make changes. Fortunately,
the usage of fossil energy is so inefficient that we only need to replace a
third of this energy if a renewable energy technology is chosen. That is, it
takes at least 3 MWh annually of mixed coal, oil, and gas to make a MWh
of electricity each year, though a MWh of renewable energy annually is a
MWh annually exactly—and once installed it is without marginal costs.
Renewable, carbon neutral, and sustainable are keywords essential for
the energy economy and energy technology of the future.
Inevitably, the energy supply must come from renewable sources, and
this change has started.
Regardless of chosen technology, the technology itself must be carbon
neutral. This means that if carbon is needed for the technology process
or manufacturing, then it must be taken form the air, not the ground. For
example,carbonisneededforproducingmetalslikesilicon,aluminum,and
steel or for components in Li-ion batteries, fuel cells, or supercapacitors.
Solutions of extraction this from plants and trees exists and relies more, in
my opinion, on political will than technological barriers.
Finally, the installed solutions must be sustainable, both with respect
to the environment footprint and for the growth of the economy of our
society.Currently,wecanfindexamplesallovertheworldwherethefearof
ix