Energy, the Environment, and Sustainability

484 Pages·2018·32.83 MB·English

by  Michaelides

Energy, the Environment,
and Sustainability
MECHANICAL and AEROSPACE ENGINEERING
Efstathios E. Michaelides
Series Editor
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Library of Congress Cataloging‑in‑Publication Data
Names: Michaelides, Efstathios, author.
Title: Energy, the environment, and sustainability / Efstathios E. Michaelides.
Description: Boca Raton, FL : CRC Press/Taylor & Francis Group, 2017. | “A CRC title,
part of the Taylor & Francis imprint, a member of the Taylor & Francis Group,
the academic division of T&F Informa plc.” | Includes bibliographical references and index.
Identifiers: LCCN 2017055489| ISBN 9781138038448 (pbk. : acid-free paper) |
ISBN 9781138489172 (hardback : acid-free paper) | ISBN 9781315177359 (ebook)
Subjects: LCSH: Renewable energy sources.
Classification: LCC TJ808 .M5285 2017 | DDC 333.79--dc23
LC record available at https://lccn.loc.gov/2017055489
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To Emmanuel, Dimitri, and Eleni, whose generation will have to invent and
develop sustainable methods for the production of the energy it needs.
http://taylorandfrancis.com
Contents
Foreword ......................................................................................................................................xiii
Author .............................................................................................................................................xv
Commonly Used Abbreviations ..............................................................................................xvii
1. Fundamental Concepts ..........................................................................................................1
1.1 Work, Energy, Heat .......................................................................................................2
1.2 Units and Unit Conversions ........................................................................................3
1.3 Elements of Thermodynamics: Principles of Energy Conversion .........................7
1.3.1 First Law of Thermodynamics .......................................................................9
1.3.2 Thermodynamic Cycles and Cyclic Engines .............................................12
1.3.3 Second Law of Thermodynamics ................................................................13
1.3.4 Perpetual Motion Engines ............................................................................17
1.4 Thermal Efficiency and Other Figures of Merit .....................................................17
1.4.1 Power Plants ...................................................................................................18
1.4.2 Refrigeration and Heat Pump Cycles ..........................................................19
1.4.3 Component Efficiencies .................................................................................21
1.5 Practical Cycles for Power Production and Refrigeration .....................................23
1.5.1 Vapor Power Cycles: The Rankine Cycle ....................................................23
1.5.2 Gas Cycles: The Brayton Cycle .....................................................................25
1.5.3 Refrigeration, Heat Pump, and Air-Conditioning Cycles ........................27
1.6 Exergy: Availability ....................................................................................................28
1.6.1 Geothermal Energy Resources ....................................................................29
1.6.2 Fossil Fuel Resources .....................................................................................30
1.6.3 Radiation: The Sun as Energy Resource .....................................................31
1.7 Myths and Reality about Energy Conversion .........................................................32
References ...............................................................................................................................34
2. Energy Demand and Supply ..............................................................................................35
2.1 Demand for Energy: Whither Does It Go? ..............................................................36
2.1.1 Economic Development, Quality of Life, and Human Development ....37
2.1.2 Benefits to the Human Society from Mechanization and Energy ..........40
2.1.3 Global Trends of the Demand for Energy ..................................................43
2.2 Energy Supply: Whence Does It Come? ...................................................................46
2.2.1 Energy Prices, Economics, and Politics ......................................................50
2.3 Energy for Transportation .........................................................................................54
2.4 Production of Electricity ............................................................................................57
2.5 Future TPES Demand .................................................................................................60
2.6 Energy Resources and Reserves ...............................................................................63
2.6.1 Finite Life of a Resource ................................................................................64
2.7 Sustainable Energy Supply and Limitations ...........................................................67
References ...............................................................................................................................69
vii
viii Contents
3. Environmental Effects of Energy Production and Utilization....................................71
3.1 Energy, Ecology, and the Environment....................................................................71
3.2 Recent Successes in Environmental Stewardship ..................................................73
3.2.1 Formation of Sulfur Dioxide and Nitrogen Oxides ..................................73
3.2.2 Acid Rain .........................................................................................................74
3.2.3 Lead Abatement .............................................................................................80
3.2.4 Ozone Depletion: The “Ozone Hole” ..........................................................82
3.3 Global Climate Change ..............................................................................................84
3.3.1 Greenhouse Effect ..........................................................................................84
3.3.2 Greenhouse Gas Emissions ..........................................................................86
3.3.3 Weather and Climate .....................................................................................90
3.3.4 Potential GCC Effects on the Climate .........................................................91
3.3.5 Mitigating and Remedial Actions ...............................................................93
3.3.6 The Kyoto Protocol.........................................................................................98
3.3.7 The Paris Agreement .....................................................................................99
3.3.8 The Kigali Agreement on Hydrofluorocarbons ......................................101
3.3.9 Uniqueness of the GCC Problem ...............................................................101
3.3.10 Myths and Reality Related to GCC ...........................................................106
3.4 Nuclear Waste ............................................................................................................109
3.4.1 Initial Treatment of the Waste ....................................................................110
3.4.2 Long-Term Disposal ....................................................................................111
3.5 Thermal Pollution .....................................................................................................112
3.5.1 Energy–Water Nexus ...................................................................................113
3.5.2 Effects on the Aquatic Life .........................................................................115
3.5.3 Myths and Reality Related to Water Use ..................................................115
3.6 Energy Sustainability and Carbon Footprint .......................................................117
References .............................................................................................................................123
4. Fossil Fuels ...........................................................................................................................125
4.1 Heating Value of Fuels .............................................................................................126
4.2 Types of Fossil Fuels .................................................................................................127
4.2.1 Coal ................................................................................................................127
4.2.2 Petroleum (Crude Oil) .................................................................................130
4.2.3 Natural Gas ...................................................................................................131
4.2.4 Oil Shale and Shale Gas ..............................................................................132
4.2.5 Tar Sands .......................................................................................................133
4.3 Physicochemical Fuel Conversions.........................................................................134
4.3.1 Petroleum Refining ......................................................................................134
4.3.2 Coal Liquefaction and Gasification: Synfuels ..........................................136
4.3.3 Fluidized Bed Reactors ...............................................................................138
4.4 Fossil Fuel Resources and Reserves: Peak Oil ......................................................142
4.4.1 Hubbert Curve..............................................................................................142
4.4.2 Life Cycle of Fossil Fuels: New Models for the Depletion
of a Resource .................................................................................................145
4.5 Environmental Effects ..............................................................................................150
4.5.1 Coal Mining and Strip Mining ..................................................................151
4.5.2 Oil Transport and Spills ..............................................................................153
4.5.3 Hydraulic Fracturing (Fracking) ...............................................................154
4.6 Future of Fossil Fuel Consumption ........................................................................155
Contents ix
4.7 CO Avoidance ...........................................................................................................156
2
References .............................................................................................................................158
5. Nuclear Energy ....................................................................................................................161
5.1 Elements of Nuclear Physics ....................................................................................161
5.1.1 Nuclear Fission .............................................................................................164
5.1.2 Nuclear Fusion .............................................................................................167
5.1.3 Radioactivity .................................................................................................168
5.1.4 Chain Reaction .............................................................................................172
5.2 Essential Components of Nuclear Reactors ..........................................................174
5.3 Reactor and Power Plant Classifications ................................................................176
5.3.1 Pressurized Water Reactors and Boiling Water Reactors ......................177
5.3.2 Gas-Cooled Reactors ...................................................................................179
5.3.3 Other Thermal Reactor Types ....................................................................180
5.3.4 Breeder Reactors...........................................................................................180
5.4 Useful Parameters for Nuclear Energy ..................................................................182
5.5 Notorious Nuclear Power Plant Accidents ............................................................185
5.5.1 Accident at Three Mile Island ....................................................................187
5.5.2 Accident at Chernobyl .................................................................................187
5.5.3 Accident at Fukushima Dai-ichi ................................................................189
5.6 Environmental Effects: The Nuclear Fuel Cycle ...................................................190
5.6.1 Mining, Refining, and Enrichment ...........................................................190
5.6.2 Reprocessing of Spent Fuel; Temporary and Permanent Storages .......191
5.6.3 Environmental and Health Effects of the Fuel Cycle .............................192
5.7 Economics of Nuclear Energy .................................................................................193
5.8 Future of Nuclear Energy ........................................................................................194
5.8.1 To Breed or Not to Breed? ...........................................................................198
5.9 Myths and Reality about Nuclear Energy .............................................................200
References .............................................................................................................................203
6. Renewable Energy ..............................................................................................................205
6.1 Hydroelectric Energy ...............................................................................................205
6.1.1 Global Hydroelectric Energy Production .................................................208
6.1.2 Environmental Impacts and Safety Concerns .........................................209
6.1.3 Planned Hydroelectric Installations and Future Expansion .................210
6.2 Solar Energy ...............................................................................................................211
6.2.1 Variability of Solar Radiation .....................................................................212
6.2.2 Thermal Collectors ......................................................................................217
6.2.3 Thermal Solar Power Plants .......................................................................220
6.2.4 Solar Cells and Photovoltaics .....................................................................222
6.2.5 Solar Power Data and Solar Energy Calculations ...................................226
6.2.6 Environmental Impacts of Solar Energy ..................................................228
6.3 Wind Energy ..............................................................................................................230
6.3.1 Fundamentals of Wind Power ...................................................................231
6.3.2 Wind Turbines ..............................................................................................236
6.3.3 Wind Power Generation ..............................................................................238
6.3.4 Average Power and Annual Energy Production .....................................243
6.3.5 Wind Farms ..................................................................................................244
6.3.6 Environmental Impacts of Wind Energy .................................................245