Encyclopedia of Sustainability Science and Technology PDF
Preview Encyclopedia of Sustainability Science and Technology
Encyclopedia of Sustainability Science and Technology Robert A. Meyers (Ed.) Encyclopedia of Sustainability Science and Technology With5917Figuresand1553Tables Editor RobertA.Meyers RAMTECHLIMITED Larkspur,CA,USA ISBN978-0-387-89469-0 ISBN978-1-4419-0851-3(eBook) ISBN978-1-4419-0852-0(printandelectronicbundle) DOI10.1007/978-1-4419-0851-3 SpringerNewYorkDordrechtHeidelbergLondon LibraryofCongressControlNumber:2012944368 ©SpringerScienceþBusinessMedia,LLC 2012 Thisworkissubjecttocopyright.AllrightsarereservedbythePublisher,whetherthewholeorpartofthematerialisconcerned,specificallythe rightsoftranslation,reprinting,reuseofillustrations,recitation,broadcasting,reproductiononmicrofilmsorinanyotherphysicalway,and transmissionorinformationstorageandretrieval,electronicadaptation,computersoftware,orbysimilarordissimilarmethodologynowknown orhereafterdeveloped.Exemptedfromthislegalreservationarebriefexcerptsinconnectionwithreviewsorscholarlyanalysisormaterial suppliedspecificallyforthepurposeofbeingenteredandexecutedonacomputersystem,forexclusiveusebythepurchaserofthework. DuplicationofthispublicationorpartsthereofispermittedonlyundertheprovisionsoftheCopyrightLawofthePublisher’slocation,inits currentversion,andpermissionforusemustalwaysbeobtainedfromSpringer.PermissionsforusemaybeobtainedthroughRightsLinkatthe CopyrightClearanceCenter.ViolationsareliabletoprosecutionundertherespectiveCopyrightLaw. Theuseofgeneraldescriptivenames,registerednames,trademarks,servicemarks,etc.inthispublicationdoesnotimply,evenintheabsenceof aspecificstatement,thatsuchnamesareexemptfromtherelevantprotectivelawsandregulationsandthereforefreeforgeneraluse. Whiletheadviceandinformationinthisbookarebelievedtobetrueandaccurateatthedateofpublication,neithertheauthorsnortheeditors northepublishercanacceptanylegalresponsibilityforanyerrorsoromissionsthatmaybemade.Thepublishermakesnowarranty,expressor implied,withrespecttothematerialcontainedherein. Printedonacid-freepaper SpringerispartofSpringerScience+BusinessMedia(www.springer.com) Preface EditorinchiefBobMeyersattheAranalVolcanoinCostaRica Our teamconsistedofnearly 1,000chemists, biologists,environmentalists, agronomists,physicists,mathemati- cians, and engineers who have prepared, supervised, or peer reviewed the content of this Encyclopedia. Our magnumopusisa18-volume12555-pageresourceavailableinbothprintandonline,ofover550peer-reviewed, detailedarticlesdefiningthescienceandtechnologybasisforprovidingforthesustainabilityoftheearthasglobal populationandtheneedsofthatpopulationincreasedramatically.Weplantocontinuallyupdateourarticlesas newtechnologyanddatabecomeavailablesuchthatthisEncyclopediawillremainthemostup-to-datecompen- dium of sustainability science and technology available. This encyclopedic treatment has been prepared by scientists and engineers forother scientists and engineers as well as planners and evaluators, in a format which allowsexpertsinonefieldtoeasilyunderstanddetailedtreatmentsoffieldsnotwithintheirareaofexpertise.These entriesformascientificbasisforthehugevolumeofsustainabilityevaluationsandstudiesaswellasresearchand business decisions, being performed within thousands of institutions worldwide. This new Encyclopedia is anaturalfollow-onandissymbioticwithourrecentlycompletedEncyclopediaofComplexityandSystemsScience, which provides key mathematical and modeling tools for understanding such diverse complex systems as cosmology, earthquakes, volcanoes, tsunamis, molecular biology, traffic management, and robotics as well as econometricsandsustainabilityoftheearth. We have established an advisory board of nineteen of the most prominent experts in sustainability which includesfiveNobelLaureatesandaco-recipientoftheNobelPeacePrizeforclimatechangeresearch,aswellasa groupof41sectioneditorswhohaveoverseenthecontentofeachofthe38topicalareasandcoordinatedthenear 1,000authorsandpeerreviewerswhopreparedandreviewedtheentries. ThecontentoftheEncyclopediaincludes: ● Solarenergy(thermal,photovoltaic,thermalelectric) ● Renewables(wind,oceanthermal,biomass,ethanol,andotherbiofuels) ● Geothermal ● Fossilenergytechnologies(extraction,production,storage,transport) ● Nuclearenergy ● Electricalgenerationandtransmission vi Preface ● Greenchemistryandengineering ● Transportation ● Conservation ● Scienceandtechnologyofthesustainablebuiltenvironment ● Pollutionsources,statistics,measurement,andcontrol ● Naturalresources ● Foodproductionandtechnology ● Oceansfarmingandoceansandhumanhealth ● Freshwaterresources,waterpurification,anddesalinization ● Socialecologicalsystems ● Biologicalecologicalsystems ● Greenpractices ● Climatechangedata,mitigation,andmodeling ● Earthsystemmonitoring ● Earthsystemmodelingandeconomics ● Healthandinfectiousdiseasesandepidemiology This list of topics clearly sets our project apart from compendia and publications which now exist, in both extent and depth. In fact, current compendia of the science and technology of several of these topics do not presentlyexistandyetthecontentiscrucialtoanyevaluationandplanningforthesustainabilityoftheearth. Vital scientificissues include: human and animal ecological supportsystems, energy supply, and effects; the planet’sclimatesystem;systemsofagriculture,industry,forestry,andfisheries;theocean,freshwater,andhuman communities; waste disposal, transportation, and the built environment in general and the various systems on which they depend; and the balance of all of these with sustainability. In this context, sustainability is acharacteristicofaprocessorstatethatcanbemaintainedatacertainlevelindefinitelyevenasglobalpopulation increasestoward9billionby2050.Thepopulationgrowth,andthehopeforincreaseinwealth,impliessomething likea50%increaseinfooddemandbyasearlyas2030.Atthesametime,theproportionofthepopulationthat lives in an urban environment will go up from about 47 to 60%. Global economic activity is expected to grow 500%,andglobalenergyandmaterialsuseisexpectedtoincreaseby300%overthisperiod.Thatmeansthereare going to be some real problems for energy, agriculture, and water, and it is increasingly clear that conflicting demands among biofuels, food crops, and environmental protection will be difficult to reconcile. The “green revolution” was heavily dependent on fertilizers which are manufactured using increasingly expensive and diminishingreservesoffossilfuels.Inaddition,about70%ofavailablefreshwaterisusedbyagriculture.Clearly, manynaturalresourceswillbecomeeitherdepletedorscarcerelativetopopulation.ThisEncyclopediaisfounded on two major assumptions. First, we acknowledge that any true measure of sustainability must include some considerationofthenumberofpeopletobesupportedandatwhatstandardofliving.Inthisrespect,populationis a linchpin in attempts to understand and achieve sustainability. While top-down approaches to controlling population growth, maintaining biodiversity, etc., certainly do exist, science and technology and the resulting innovation economy is a bottom-up affair involving individuals and teams of individuals in publicly funded scientificlaboratoriesandprivatecorporations.Thisprocessisessentiallyunpredictable,resultinginagreatrange of promising technologies that are individually dwarfed by the scope of the challenge but represent essential contributionstosustainability. WhiletherearemanyWeb-basedandevensomeprintencyclopedictreatmentsofsustainabilityscienceinthe broadsense,nonearecomprehensiveandrisetotheuniversityorprofessionalscientistandengineerlevelneededto supportrealprogressfromthebottomup.TheemphasisfortheEncyclopediaofSustainabilityScienceandTechnology teamisonscienceandtechnologyandnotonpolicyandpositions.Rather,thisEncyclopediaisacomprehensive andauthoritativeresourceforpolicymakerswhowanttounderstandhowscientificandtechnologicalinnovations Preface vii inallfieldsmapontothetruescopeofthesustainabilitychallengeandwillalsobeamajorresourceforscientists andengineersindevelopingnewtechnologiesandforapplyingexistingtechnologiestosustainability.Further,we plantomaintainour1,000-scientistandengineerteamtocontinuallyupdateourcontent. Among the topics covered are: the chemistry, physics, modeling, and engineering of green chemistry for industry, water use, and recovery; crop production including precision farming, genetic modification of crops, with forestmaintenance;all types of energy production, electric utilityas well as small-scaleelectricgeneration (fossilfuelaswellasnuclearfissionandfusion,solarelectricandthermalandrenewable)andmassandpersonal transportation with fuel modification, power source variation, pollution control, and waste disposition; solid waste utilization, recycle, and disposition; urban planning and the built environment; environmental quality; engineeringmitigation,adaptation,andforecastingofglobalwarming,andanypossiblecoolingduetosolar-earth insolation dimming; geoengineering and greenhouse effect mitigation measures; measurement and observation systems(terrestrialandfromspace);analyticalchemistrymethodsforthebiosphere,includingindoorpollution and industrial hygiene; disease prevention and treatment; and catastrophic event (e.g., volcanic eruption, tsu- namis,cyclones,tornadoes)measurementandmitigation. RAMTECHLIMITED RobertA.Meyers Larkspur,CA,USA EditorinChief August2012 Acknowledgments IwishtothankDavidPacker,executiveeditor,whoworkedwithmetodefinethescopeoftheprojectandthen providedinvaluablecounselinperformanceofmanyelementsofthepublicationprocess.Ialsowishtoexpressour profoundgratitudetoLydiaMueller,AnilChandyandSaraKateHeukerottfortheirprojectmanagementskillsas wellasNehaThapa,associateeditor,andSunaliMull,editorialassistant,fortheiroutstandingeffortsinproducing this Encyclopedia. Their interaction with our team of authors, section editors, and board members was highly professional,courteous,pleasant,andyetfirm,whichwasintegralinobtaininghighqualityandtimelydeliveryof ourmanuscripts.TheirmasteryofformalaswellasidiomaticEnglishfacilitatedmanyoftheseinteractions.
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