Encyclopedia of Sociology

756 Pages·2005·5.99 MB·English

Encyclopedia
of Sociology
Second Edition
Encyclopedia
of Sociology
Second Edition
1
VOLUME
Edgar F. Borgatta
Editor-in-Chief
University of Washington, Seattle
Rhonda J. V. Montgomery
Managing Editor
University of Kansas, Lawrence
Encyclopedia of Sociology
Second Edition
Copyright © 2000 by Edgar F. Borgatta and Rhonda J. V. Montgomery
All rights reserved. No part of this book may be reproduced or transmitted in any
form or by any means, electronic or mechanical, including photocopying, recording, or
by any information storage and retrieval system, without permission in writing from
the Publisher.
Macmillan Reference USA
an imprint of The Gale Group
1633 Broadway
New York, NY 10019
Library of Congress Catalog in Publication Data
Encyclopedia of Sociology / Edgar F. Borgatta, editor-in-chief, Rhonda Montgomery,
managing editor.—2nd ed.
p. cm.
Includes bibliographical references and index.
ISBN 0-02-864853-6 (set: alk paper)—ISBN 0-02-864849-8 (v. 1: alk. paper)—
0-02-864850-1 (v. 2)—0-02-86485-1 (v. 3)—0-02-864852-8 (v. 4)—0-02-865581-8 (v. 5)
1. Sociology—Encyclopedias. I. Borgatta, Edgar F., 1924- II. Montgomery,
Rhonda J. V.
HM425 .E5 2000
301’.03—dc21 00-028402
CIP
Printed in the United States of America by the Gale Group
Gale Group and Design is a trademark used herein under license.
Staff
Publisher
Elly Dickason
Project Editors
Timothy Prairie
Pamela Proffitt
Editorial Assistants
Shawn Beall
Wayne Yang
Assistant Manager, Composition
Evi Seoud
Buyer
Rhonda Williams
Senior Art Director
Michelle DiMercurio
Contents
Preface................................ v
Preface for Second Edition .............. ix
Acknowledgments ..................... xi
List of Articles........................ xiii
List of Authors ...................... xxiii
Encyclopedia of Sociology................ 1
Index .............................. 3291
iii
Preface
The idea for this Encyclopedia of Sociology was in However, since it takes time for these things, it was
gestation for a long time. Probably the notion not until the early 1980s that I actually started
arose when, as Sociology Advisory Editor for Rand reflecting actively on what would need to be done,
McNally and Company, I arranged for a series of and I sought advice on what actually would be
handbooks that were published in the 1960s and involved in such a project. Fortunately, Raymond
1970s. This influential group of volumes covered J. Corsini, a good friend with whom I had worked
most of sociology, especially with the Handbook of on other matters, invited me to be an Associate
Modern Sociology (Robert E. L. Faris, 1964) as a key Editor for the Encyclopedia of Psychology (Corsini,
volume. Other titles in the list included: Handbook 1984). I got a close look at what was involved in
of Marriage and the Family (Harold T. Christensen, undertaking a project of this magnitude and I was
1964); Handbook of Organizations (James G. March, persuaded that the task would be a feasible one for
1965); Handbook of Socialization Theory and Research sociology.
(David A. Goslin, 1968); Handbook of Personality
The field of sociology had been growing and
Theory and Research (Edgar F. Borgatta & William
evolving rapidly in the post-World War II period.
W. Lambert, 1968); Handbook on the Study of Social
Possibly the decades of the 1960s and 1970s will be
Problems (Erwin O. Smigel, 1971); and Handbook of
seen in retrospect as one of the periods of great
Criminology (Daniel Glaser, 1974). Effectively, the
change for the discipline. Of course, different
series functioned as an encyclopedia, especially
people will judge past developments differently,
since there was additional related coverage al-
but some of the changes that have to be recognized
ready provided by the Handbook of Social Psychology as important include the following:
(Gardner Lindzey and Elliot Aronson, 1968). At
that time Macmillan’s International Encyclopedia of First. Sociology, which August Comte had
the Social Sciences (David L. Sills, ed., 1968) was also blessed with the title of the ‘‘Queen of the Social
available, and a separate encyclopedia for sociolo- Sciences,’’ seemed to be losing much of the em-
gy seemed superfluous. pire. In particular, applied fields dealing with so-
cial behavior blossomed, but as they did so, soci-
With time, however, as social-science research ology seemed indifferent, uninvolved. The field of
and professional involvement grew, along with the social work developed its advanced degree pro-
proliferation of subfields, each of the social and grams and established research interests that soci-
behavioral sciences and, indeed, other specialties, ology relinquished as uninteresting because they
such as statistics, area studies, and applied areas, were ‘‘applied.’’ The field of industrial sociology
developed useful encyclopedias. In the late 1970s I virtually disappeared as the interest in research
talked about an encyclopedia of sociology with F. flourished in several specialties in psychology and
E. (Ted) Peacock (F. E. Peacock Publishers, Inc.), in schools of business and management. Interest
who encouraged the development of the project. in the key institution, the family, was largely lost to
v
PREFACE
the special applied organizations in that area. And Fourth. At the same time, the scope of what
so it went in a number of other fields. The ‘‘Queen’’ sociologists could accomplish more generally ex-
appeared indifferent, possibly with the exception panded with technical development. Two of the
of the field of medical sociology, in which there more prohibitive cost factors in research and schol-
was considerable development. arship have progressively been reduced, since the
development of computing packages made possi-
Second. Technical training in sociology became
ble the elimination of computing clerks at the
increasingly more demanding. When I taught the
same time that it made possible complex numeri-
first graduate course in statistics for sociology at
cal and statistical analyses. Additionally, this devel-
the New York University Graduate School in 1954,
opment eliminated time losses as the labor inten-
it included regression analysis and factor analysis.
sive aspects were eliminated. Also, the availability
The reception and reputation was a bit like that of word processing packages made it possible for
greeting the arrival of extraterrestrials. The title even the most helpless scholar to by-pass the secre-
(or epithet) ‘‘Factor Analyst’’ was definitely not tary or typing pool and get materials into a read-
meant to be complimentary. Nevertheless, in the able and revisable format. As these earlier ‘‘barri-
1950s, the Social Science Research Council (SSRC) ers’’ to productivity were removed, presumably
and others supported the idea that the formal the social sciences responded accordingly. In any
theory and technical bases of the social sciences event, there has been a proliferation of journals,
required attention, and programs were initiated to and increasing collateral publication continues in
foster a greater appreciation of mathematics and various media.
statistics. Particularly with the support of the Na-
Fifth. The continued development of the field
tional Institutes of Mental Health (NIMH) gradu-
of sociology can be marked by the increase of
ate training grants, the University of Wisconsin,
special subfields. Aside from the increases in pub-
the University of Michigan, and other centers
lication, the number of specialization sections in
concentrated on ‘‘research methods’’ during and
the American Sociological Association (ASA) con-
following the 1960s. The discipline reflected this
tinues to grow, as do the Research Committees in
focus in its journals. Sociology also became known
the International Sociological Association (ISA). A
as the leader in research training in the social
reflection of this may be seen by glancing at the
sciences, with the new generation of scholars be-
topical coverage of Contemporary Sociology, the ASA
coming conversant with statisticians, econometricians,
journal of book reviews.
and psychometricians, and providing service to
history, political science, and anthropology. The This broadening of the field of sociology af-
‘‘Queen’’ again had some empire. fected the way topics were chosen for the Encyclo-
pedia of Sociology. In the early stages, a broad set of
Third. The 1960s experienced the civil-rights
topics was used to accumulate the important con-
movement, the student movement, the feminist
cepts and subfields included in sociology. Initially,
movement, and, implicitly or explicitly, sociolo-
the objective was to be as inclusive as possible and
gists reacted to and sometimes participated active-
to avoid errors of omission. A constant problem in
ly in these social movements. Challenges arose to the process was that topics did not fit neatly into
the ‘‘traditional’’ values of objective and ‘‘value only one broad category. Often they could fit as
free’’ science in sociology. These challenges ranged easily into two, three, or four. In fact, the number
from positions asserting knowledge by intuition to of broad categories became increasingly elastic,
the posing of more serious epistemological ques- but eventually these were reduced to seventeen,
tions. Attention was drawn to the fact that sociolo- corresponding to no known system of organiza-
gy apparently had little utility in solving social tion other than expedience. The broad categories
problems, aside from assisting in exposing them, did not have any obvious theoretical basis of divi-
but, further, sociologists were often accused of not sion, which was disconcerting, but represented the
studying complex problems because they were pragmatic result of many revisions. Our Advisory
limited and hampered by their methodologies. A and Associate Editors participated in reviews of
resurgence of interest in ‘‘qualitative’’ approaches the total set of categories or of selected subsets for
developed, which also provided a stimulus for a a few of the broad categories. It is fair to report
reexamination of existing research approaches. that while we often saw consensus in the process,
vi
PREFACE
sometimes we felt that there was no effective way will reach a broad range of literate audiences.
to manage the procedure for selection of topics or There are some obvious exceptions. In some tech-
to satisfy every piece of advice, sound as it might nical areas the presentations, while self-contained
seem. At one point we had more than 1,700 poten- and elegantly presented, do require a preexisting
tial entry titles. These eventually were consolidat- knowledge base in order to be fully understood by
ed into about 400 titles with notations of how the readers.
overlapping concepts were handled, how related
OCTOBER 1991
concepts were to be combined, and so forth. In
EDGAR F. BORGATTA, EDITOR-IN-CHIEF
making the arrangements with authors, further
consolidation brought the final number of entries
to the 370 in this 4-volume set. REFERENCES
Borgatta, Edgar F., and William W. Lambert 1968 (eds.)
The process of defining topics, thus, while
Handbook of Personality Theory and Research. Chicago:
driven by theoretical interests and strategic repre-
Rand McNally and Company.
sentations of the field, ultimately resulted in a
Christensen, Harold T. 1964 (ed.) Handbook of Marriage
pragmatic and eclectic product. Thus some topics
and the Family. Chicago: Rand McNally and Company.
became very comprehensive while others have
more specific content. In areas where there is Corsini, Raymond J. 1984 (ed.) Encyclopedia of Psychology.
intensive attention by sociologists, such as social New York: John Wiley & Company.
stratification, race and ethnic studies, gender, medi- Faris, Robert E. L. 1964 (ed.) Handbook of Modern Soci-
cal sociology, and aging, coverage by authors may ology. Chicago: Rand McNally and Company.
overlap in a way that provides emphasis. Glaser, Daniel 1974 (ed.) Handbook of Criminology.
Chicago: Rand McNally and Company.
Other factors that guided the formulation of
entry topics included defining the audience for Goslin, David A. 1968 (ed.) Handbook of Socialization
Theory and Research. Chicago: Rand McNally and
whom the encyclopedia was intended. It was ex-
Company.
pected that sociologists would read about areas
with which they were not familiar, but we wanted Lindzey, Gardner, and Elliot Aronson 1968 (eds.) Hand-
the materials to be useful to other scholars and book of Social Psychology, 2nd ed. Boston: Addison-
Wesley Publishing Company.
professionals who need information about topics
in sociology. Further, encyclopedias are gold mines March, James G. 1965 (ed.) Handbook of Organizations.
for students, and so a central concern was that Chicago: Rand McNally and Company.
articles could be read and understood by younger Sills, David L. 1968 (ed.) International Encyclopedia of the
and uninitiated persons looking for a first intro- Social Sciences. New York: Macmillan Company and
duction to a sociological topic. This latter message Free Press.
was communicated to authors, and in large part it Smigel, Erwin O. 1971 (ed.) Handbook on the Study of
has been possible to provide presentations that Social Problems. Chicago: Rand McNally and Company.
vii
Preface for Second Edition
After the Encyclopedia of Sociology had been in addition of 66 new titles, but in addition some of
print only three years, we began to receive inquir- the revised articles also included substantially new
ies about when there would be a revised edition. and expanded topics.
This was surprising given that the Encyclopedia was
With the help of the Advisory Editors and
so well received, that its distribution had been
quite a few authors, we reviewed articles and sec-
much broader than even optimistic supporters of
tors of coverage to determine what changes would
the project had anticipated, and that the articles
be important in a new edition. We distilled the
were largely broad reviews and summaries of areas
major points of emphasis provided by reviews and
of knowledge in sociology. However, some areas
user comments, and incorporated them into the
in sociology changed quickly during the last dec-
guidelines for revision provide to authors.
ade as we approached the Millennium so that
interest in a recapitulation and updating did not Reflecting the kind of question that comes up
seem inappropriate. In addition, the social sci- so often in sociology doctoral exams, reviewers
ences appear to have softened their borders, and repeatedly asked us why a particular article was
thus we realized that a substantial and thoughtful included in an encyclopedia of sociology. Authors
addition of titles would add breadth and depth to who are expert in a particular subject area assume
the Encyclopedia. too frequently that readers will know their topic’s
relevance for sociology. To guard against this we
August Comte’s description of sociology as
asked authors to note the sociological relevance of
the ‘‘queen’’ of the social sciences seems to have
the topic and to show how it fit into not only the
been awakened in a new generation, and the rele-
scheme of sociological knowledge but also social
vance of sociology to the social and behavioral
and behavioral knowledge in general. As a conse-
sciences has been renewed. We took seriously our
quence, most articles have been expanded.
obligation to improve the representation of the
areas of sociology in this edition of the Encyclope- Authors, experts in their fields, often concen-
dia. The Encyclopedia was greatly improved through trate on the knowledge and the issues within their
the input of Advisory Editors and authors who field but do not give sufficient attention to the
identified new content areas and titles that should practical value of that knowledge, particularly how
be included and indicated which titles could be it is important for policy formation and in applica-
eliminated or consolidated. Some provided com- tions to everyday life. Of course, this is a comment
prehensive reviews of the Encyclopedia’s scope and often made about academic scholars in general,
coverage, as well as reviews of the content of many namely, that they sometimes forget that an impor-
individual articles. Suggestions for additional titles tant reason for research and the accumulation of
for the revised Encyclopedia accumulated to a list of knowledge is to provide bases for useful and in-
over 80 concepts and themes, resulting in the formed applications.
ix
PREFACE FOR SECOND EDITION
Reviewers raised another theme. Articles of- provide additional transitions to related concepts.
ten did a wonderful job of summarizing knowl- We updated and provided new references for 20
edge but did not indicate what to expect from articles from the earlier edition of the Encyclope-
future endeavors in the field. In other words, what dia.
areas need more attention in scholarship and re-
Finally, reviewers commented that some of
search to expand the knowledge in a given field?
the presentations in the first edition were too
While this kind of presentation is speculative, we
brief, and some topics were too narrowly drawn.
reminded authors of the need to give direction for
Thus, some topics have been combined, some
future work.
topics have been eliminated and the content incor-
An additional theme for the revised edition is porated into related broader articles, and many
one that is temporally controlled. There is no way articles have been expanded to cover neglected
that references can provide more information than aspects of a topic and to provide greater detail for
what already has been published. Updating con- a more well-rounded presentation. Thirty-nine ti-
tent is important, but equally important is provid- tles were eliminated and incorporated into more
ing information about easily accessible general substantial articles, but some additional titles were
resources for those who want to go beyond the changed when the original topic was expanded. In
relatively brief discussions in the Encyclopedia. We summary, there were 370 articles in the original
reminded authors that the purpose of the refer- edition, 39 were eliminated and 66 new articles
ence section is to provide users with an opportuni- were added, resulting in 397 in this revised edition.
ty to explore the area further. Academic scholars
In short, we have greatly improved the breadth
can too easily become exhaustive bibliographers.
and depth of coverage in the Encyclopedia, and we
Thus, we asked authors to give special attention to
have paid particular attention to those articles that
providing direction rather than overwhelming the
relate to other social and behavioral sciences. We
reader, and we are impressed that most authors
have substantially increased the content of the
have been extremely successful in this task. In
Encyclopedia in this edition, and we have made
addition to the work of the authors, the profes-
every effort to ensure that the content is current,
sional sociological staff of the Encyclopedia pre-
accurate, and representative of the field.
pared for some article a short list of additional
references to broaden the scope of coverage and EDGAR F. BORGATTA, EDITOR-IN-CHIEF
x