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Encyclopedia of Sex and Gender Encyclopedia of Sex and Gender VOLUME 1 a–c Fedwa Malti-Douglas EDITOR IN CHIEF EncyclopediaofSexandGender FedwaMalti-Douglas,EditorinChief ª2007TheGaleGroup. mechanical,includingphotocopying, Sincethispagecannotlegibly recording,taping,Webdistribution,or accommodateallcopyrightnotices,the Thomson,StarLogoandMacmillan informationstorageretrievalsystems— creditsconstituteanextensionofthecopyright ReferenceUSAaretrademarksandGaleisa withoutthewrittenpermissionofthe notice. registeredtrademarkusedhereinunder publisher. license. Whileeveryefforthasbeenmadetoensurethe Forpermissiontousematerialfromthis reliabilityoftheinformationpresentedinthis Formoreinformation,contact product,submityourrequestviaWebat publication,Galedoesnotguaranteethe MacmillanReferenceUSA http://www.gale-edit.com/permissions,or accuracyofthedatecontainedherein.Gale AnimprintofTheGaleGroup youmaydownloadourPermissionsRequest acceptsnopaymentforlisting;andinclusionin 27500DrakeRd. formandsubmityourrequestbyfaxor thepublicationofanyorganization,agency, FarmingtonHills,MI48331-3535 mailto: institution,publication,service,orindividual OryoucanvisitourInternetsiteat doesnotimplyendorsementoftheeditorsor http://www.gale.com PermissionsDepartment publisher.Errorsbroughttotheattentionof TheGaleGroup thepublisherandverifiedtothesatisfactionof ALLRIGHTSRESERVED 27500DrakeRd. thepublisherwillbecorrectedinfuture Nopartofthisworkcoveredbythecopyright FarmingtonHills,MI48331-3535 editions. hereonmaybereproducedorusedinanyform PermissionsHotline: orbyanymeans—graphic,electronic,or 248-699-8006or800-877-4253ext.8006 Fax:248-699-8074or800-762-4058 LIBRARYOFCONGRESSCATALOGING-IN-PUBLICATIONDATA Encyclopediaofsexandgender/FedwaMalti-Douglas,editorinchief. p.cm Includesbibliographicalreferencesandindex. ISBN978-0-02-865960-2(sethardcover)–ISBN978-0-02-865961-9(v.1hardcover) — ISBN978-0-02-865962-6(v.2hardcover)—ISBN978-0-02-865963-3(v.3hardcover)– ISBN978-0-02-865964-0(v.4hardcover) 1.Sex–Encyclopedias. 2.Sex–Cross-culturalstudies. I.Malti-Douglas,Fedwa. HQ16.E522008 306.703–dc22 2007020796 0-02-865960-0(set) 0-02-865961-9(v.1) 0-02-865962-7(v.2) 0-02-865963-5(v.3) 0-02-865964-3(v.4) Thistitleisalsoavailableasane-book. ISBN978-0-02-866115-5,0-02-866115-X ContactyourGalerepresentativefororderinginformation. PrintedintheUnitedStatesofAmerica 10987654321 Editorial Board EDITORINCHIEF Fedwa Malti-Douglas IndianaUniversity,Bloomington ASSOCIATEEDITORS Jamsheed K. Choksy IndianaUniversity,Bloomington Judith Roof MichiganStateUniversity Francesca Canadé Sautman HunterCollegeandTheGraduateCenteroftheCity UniversityofNewYork CONSULTINGEDITORS Sumie Jones IndianaUniversity,Bloomington Liana Zhou TheKinseyInstitute IndianaUniversity,Bloomington Editorial and Production Staff PROJECTEDITOR ChristineKelley GRAPHICART DeirdreS.Blanchfield EricLinderman GGSInformationServices EricLowenkron CONTRIBUTINGEDITORS RaymondLukens RIGHTSACQUISITION MonicaM.Hubbard DavidE.Salamie MANAGEMENT JenniferYorkStock EleanorStanford LeithaEtheridge-Sims MarieL.Thompson EDITORIALTECHNICALSUPPORT JohnYohalem COMPOSITION MarkDrouillard EviAbou-El-Seoud PROOFREADER MikeWeaver MaryBethTrimper JohnKrol MANUSCRIPTEDITORS MANUFACTURING KariBethel INDEXER DrewKalasky JudithClinebell LaurieAndriot LaurieJ.Edwards DIRECTOR,NEWPRODUCT JessicaHornikEvans PRODUCTDESIGN DEVELOPMENT WilliamKaufman PamelaA.E.Galbreath He´le`nePotter SharonR.Gunton JenHirt IMAGING PUBLISHER ElizabethInserra LezlieLight JayFlynn Contents VOLUME1 Preface XI Introduction XIII List of Articles XXI List of Contributors XXXIII Thematic Outline XLVII ENCYCLOPEDIAOFSEXANDGENDER A-C 1 VOLUME2 ENCYCLOPEDIAOFSEXANDGENDER D-I 361 VOLUME3 ENCYCLOPEDIAOFSEXANDGENDER J-P 789 VOLUME4 ENCYCLOPEDIAOFSEXANDGENDER Q-Z 1221 Index 1579 IX Preface Although the vast amount of media attention devoted to sex may make it seem more importantthanever,insomewayssexisactuallylessimportanttodaythaneverbefore.In the developed world, there has been a trend away from the wide-open spaces of agrarian settings andtowardovercrowdedcities,which meansthat most couplesnolongerhave an urgentneedtoreproducetoprovideoffspringtotakecareofthemwhentheygetolder.With fewer fields to till, infant mortality reduced, and improved health care allowing people to work for many more years, having a large number of children is no longer the standard method of retirement planning. So although at one time the ability to limit pregnancies would have had catastrophic results, today’s birth rates reflect this new reality, be it voluntarilyasinEurope,orinvoluntarilyasinChina.Andnow,withartificialinsemination, wedon’tevenneedthesexacttomakebabies.Soifwehumanswereevertolosetheabilityto havesexatsomepointinthefuture(heavenforbid!),thesenewtechnologieswouldallowour kindtocontinuetoinhabittheearthforaslongastheearthwasinhabitable. Butwhereassexhaslostitsimportanceinitsprimarysense,ithasgrowninimportance inanother,keepingpeopletogetherascouples,leadingtoitscurrentstatewherewehumans arehavingmoresexthaneverbefore.Idon’tneedastudytoprovethatbecauseonereason forthisincreaseissimplythefactthatwe’relivinglonger,andsoeachofusishavingmoresex thandidpastgenerationsoverthecourseofourlongerlifetimes.Buttheaddedleisuretime inourmodernsocietiesalsofreesustoputmorefocusonsex,sowhilethesexacthasbeen decoupled somewhat from its original purpose, it remains very much at the center of our dailylives. Manyofthesechangeshavetakenplaceovergenerations,buttherehavebeensignificant changeswithregardtosexthathaveoccurredinonlythepasthalfcenturyorso.I’lleventake some credit for one or two of those.One significant change is that so many morewomen knownow that theyshould beenjoyingsex ratherthan justputting upwithitinorder to haveafamily.Inmylectures,IoftenmakereferencetoaVictorianmotherwho,whentelling herabout-to-be-marrieddaughteraboutthebirdsandbees,wouldsay,‘‘Liebackandthink of England.’’ But while those dark ages continue for too many women, millions of others have made the transition to being sexually fulfilled by acquiring the knowledge needed to haveorgasms,andtheindependencetodemandthemfromtheirpartners.Sothepleasure thatcomesfromengaginginsexualrelations,whichhashistoricallybeenmoreimportantfor one gender than theother, can beshared now by bothmen and women equally.Andone XI PREFACE couldsaythatthishappenedjustintime,becauseasthereproductiveroleofsexlessens,its roleinkeepingparentstogetherhasbecomemoreimportant. It has always been important for children to have two parents for their survival, but historically, children were given adult roles much earlier than they are today. In order to support a child through the college years, parents must find ways of cementing their relationship over a much longer period of time. And sex is an important part of the glue thatkeepspartnerstogether.Thatisnottosaythatmanydivorcedcouplesdonotsendtheir children to college, but it becomes much more of a financial burden if the funds have to comefromtwoseparatehouseholds.Soasthereproductiveaspectsofsexhavebeensinking inimportance,itisthepleasurableaspectsforbothmalesandfemalesthathavebeenrisingto the top. This is especially true in societies where women have increasingly been able to support themselves. When women were financially dependent on their partners, they had lessleveragewhenitcametoaskingforsexualsatisfaction.Butnowthatwomencansurvive whenlivingalone,thesexualaspectsofamarriage,forbothpartners,playamoreimportant roleintheircombineddesiretoremainafunctioningcouple. This encyclopedia is not only about the sexual act, but also about gender, which traditionallystoodformalesandfemalesbutthesedaysmaybeopentofurtherinterpreta- tions, as sexual orientation may not necessarily follow one path linked to the physical attributesofmaleandfemale. Justassexhaschangedinitsimportanceoverthelasthalfcentury,sohasgender.Not thatlongagoeveryone’splaceintheworldwasdetermined,tosomedegree,bytheirgender. Every year that goes by, that becomes less and less true, and so conversely, as with sex, knowing about gender becomes more and more important. If all the old assumptions are wrong,thenweallhaveadutytolearnaboutthenewpossibilities.Andtodothat,youneed asup-to-datearoadmapasyoucanfind,andthatisexactlywhatyouwillfindinsidethese manypages. When I first went on the radio and used words like penis and vagina, people were shocked.TodaythereishardlyawordintheEnglishlanguagethatwouldshockanyone.And yet so many people, young and old, have shocking lacunae in their knowledge of sex and gender.IwanttocommendMacmillanandFedwaMalti-Douglasforputtingthismagni- ficentsetofvolumestogether,andIhopethattheresultwillbethatwhenitcomesout,that gapinknowledgewillbecomesomewhatsmaller. Dr.RuthWestheimer September2007 XII ENCYCLOPEDIA OF SEX AND GENDER Introduction NEED FOR THE ENCYCLOPEDIA No issues are more debated today than those that swirl around the subjects of sex and gender;indebatesthatoftenseemto generatemoreheatthanlight.Inthis areaofrapid social change,and equally rapid progress in scientificknowledgeand understanding, the necessityofacomprehensiveencyclopediaofsexandgenderisoverwhelming.Theneedis criticalforareferenceworkthatcoversindetailtheterritoryfrombiologytoculture(by wayofthesocialsciencesandthehumanities),thatexaminesourswiftlychangingpresent in the light of new understandings of our past, and one that places all these debates in a globalperspective. ‘‘Sex’’ and ‘‘gender.’’ Two words that can have a powerful effect, whether taken separately or together, on those who encounter them. They, and the discussions around them, may be anathema to some. These subjects may be taboo for others. There are still manywho,undertheguiseofadefenseoftraditionalmores,believethatbyshuttingtheir eyes and ears(while loudly openingtheirmouths) theycanstop theresults ofcenturies of social evolution. To those who think that sex, in all its variety, is a subject best not talked about(lesttalkingleadtoaction),theEncyclopediaofSexandGenderstandsasachallenge. Closets are not healthy places; and where there are problems, as there are in all aspects of humanlife,theyarebestconfrontedintheopen,notburiedbehindwallsofignoranceand denial. Fortunately, the voices of censorship are losing their power as a swiftly growing segmentofthepopulationembracesknowledgeofsexandgender,seeinginthisknowledgea mode of liberation and a recognition that the topics treated under the rubrics of sex and genderhavebeencentraltoallworldculturesfromthebeginningoftime.Perhapshadthe snakeintheGardenofEdennottemptedEve,shemightnothavetemptedAdamtoeatof the fruit of the tree of knowledge. Once that door was opened, it could not be closed. Whateverelseitmayimply,thisancientstorytransmitstwobasictruths:therelationofsex andknowledge,andthefactthatwecannotgoback. Now,inthefirstdecadeofthetwenty-firstcentury,itseemstimelyandappropriateto produce an Encyclopedia of Sex and Gender. It has been over half a century since the publicationofDr.AlfredKinsey’sgroundbreakingandcontroversialstudiesofsexualityin thehumanmaleandthehumanfemale.Muchinkhasbeenspilledoverwhatconstitutessex and sexuality. And it seems that we, as human animals, have barely begun to imagine the ramificationsofthestillunfoldingareaofsex.Ourhumanemotionsarebeingputtothetest XIII INTRODUCTION bytherapidlyexpandingareasoftechnology.CanWeFallinLovewithaMachine?wasthe titleofamulti-mediaexhibitattheWoodStreetGalleriesinPittsburghin2006. SCOPE AND CONTENTS: WHAT IS SEX AND GENDER? Ourtaskisnotmadeeasierbythefactthattheword‘‘gender’’(especiallyasdistinguishedfrom sex) has a distinct relationship to the English language. In French, for example, when one wishestoexpresstheideaofmasculineandfemininesocialroles,oneisthrownbackonthe wordforsex.AsimilarsituationpertainswithArabic.Allthisisbecausegender,asitisusedin thisencyclopedia,isarecentconstructinEnglish.TheEnglishterm‘‘gender’’usedtorefertoa linguistic category of masculine and feminine. But grammatical gender in English can be misleading,explainingwhythejumpfromgrammartohumanbehavioriseasierinEnglish thaninotherlanguages.Englishgrammaticalgenderencouragestheblurringofboundaries. For,inEnglishwehavenaturalorbiologicalgender.Nounswithamaleorfemalesex(e.g.,he, she, mother, father, ewe, ram) carry the appropriate grammatical gender. Nouns deemed sexless(e.g.,table,cloud)areneuter.Grammaticalgendercarriessexualinformation.Notsoin other languages. In most, grammaticalgender is merely a division of nouns into categories. While a few terms may have been pulled towards biological sex (e.g., le père, la mère), the overwhelmingmajorityofnounsisclassifiedaccordingtomorphology,notcontent.Afamous exampleisthattheGermantermforayoungwoman,Fraülein,isgrammaticallyneuternot feminine.DidAmericans whodeveloped thenewthinkingaboutgendermerely exploitthe resourcesoftheirlanguageordidtheparticularitiesoftheirlanguageinfluencethecreationof theircategories? As will become clear from this encyclopedia, gender is a crucial term for the way in whichsocietiesorganizesexualcategories,sexualroles,sexualbehavior,sexualidentification, andsoon.GenderStudieshasappearedasanavatar,ormorecorrectlyanevolution,from Women’s Studies. That is, a disciplinary area still practiced today (and as such a major intellectual force in this encyclopedia) and has traditionally concentrated on women’s history, the status, image, and role of women in various societies, cultural forms, etc. Gender Studies is more englobing and its paradigms are at the same time more flexible and more complex than those traditionally associated with the discipline of Women’s Studies. To take but one example: scholars and scientists have become aware that even biology(nottospeakofsociety)isnotsosimplydichotomousasweusedtothinkitwas,i.e. the male sex with its attendant chromosomes or the female sex, also with its attendant chromosomes.Sciencehasbroadenedouruniverse,atthesametimeasithascomplicatedit. Nowwemustincludeacategoryofintersex,inwhichhumanchromosomesarenotidentical to those of the male and female of the species but rather represent a mixture of the two. Intersexindividualsarenotfertile,andthereforecannotpropagatethemselves.Buttheycan live normal sexual lives, with some phenotypically females free of the menses that plague womenforalargepartoftheirexistence. Science,biology, and technology have also permitted something that might well have beensurprisingtonineteenthandearlytwentiethscientistsandphysicians.EvenSigmund Freud,thefatherofpsychoanalysis,mightraisehiseyebrowsatbodilytransformationsthat have become part and parcel of our gendered universe. When Donald McCloskey, a prominenteconomist,decidedtochangehissexualidentitythroughsurgeryandhormonal treatments from male to female, in other words to become what we today consider a transsexualindividual,hisfamilyhadhimarrestedforinsanity.Today,Donaldliveshappily asDeirdreandretainsherpositionasaprominentsocialscientist. Itisyoungergenerationsofindividuals,thoseintheirteensandtwenties,whohaveled the revolution to change sexual mores,at the sametime transforming gender into a much moreelasticcategory.Amasculineyoungwoman,alreadysportingshorthairanddressedin bluejeans,mayonedaydecidetonolongerplaywhatwasleftofthefemalerolethatsociety hadassignedtoher,andinsteadadopttheidentityofamalewithasimplefirst-namechange. Iexperiencedthispersonallyinmyofficeandhadtoconstantlyapologizetothemalewhen XIV ENCYCLOPEDIA OF SEX AND GENDER