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Encyclopedia of Russian History (Volumes I-IV) PDF

1930 Pages·2004·39.73 MB·English
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ERH-half ttlpg 10,1.qx4 10/6/03 1:45 PM Page i E N C Y C L O P E D I A O F RUSSIAN HISTORY EDITOR IN CHIEF James R. Millar George Washington University SENIOR ASSOCIATE EDITOR Ann E. Robertson George Washington University EDITORIAL ASSOCIATE EDITORS BOARD Daniel H. Kaiser Grinnell College Louise McReynolds University of Hawaii Donald J. Raleigh University of North Carolina Nicholas V. Riasanovsky University of California, Berkeley Ronald Grigor Suny University of Chicago ADVISORY BOARD Marianna Tax Choldin University of Illinois, Urbana-Champaign Gregory L. Freeze Brandeis University Paul R. Gregory University of Houston Lindsey Hughes University College London Paul R. Josephson Colby College Janet L. B. Martin University of Miami Bruce W. Menning U.S. Army Command and Staff College Boris N. Mironov Russian Academy of Science Reginald E. Zelnik University of California, Berkeley Encyclopedia of Russian History James R. Millar © 2004 by Macmillan Reference USA. ALL RIGHTS RESERVED Permissions Department Macmillan Reference USA is an imprint of No part of this work covered by the copyright The Gale Group, Inc. The Gale Group, Inc., a division of hereon may be reproduced or used in any 27500 Drake Rd. Thomson Learning, Inc. form or by any means—graphic, electronic, or Farmington Hills, MI 48331-3535 mechanical, including photocopying, record- Permissions Hotline: Macmillan Reference USA™ and ing, taping, Web distribution, or information 248-699-8006 or 800-877-4253 ext. 8006 Thomson Learning™ are trademarks used storage retrieval systems—without the written Fax: 248-699-8074 or 800-762-4058 herein under license. permission of the publisher. While every effort has been made to ensure For more information, contact For permission to use material from this the reliability of the information presented in Macmillan Reference USA product, submit your request via Web at this publication, The Gale Group, Inc. does 300 Park Avenue South, 9th Floor http://www.gale-edit.com/permissions, or you not guarantee the accuracy of the data con- New York, NY 10010 may download our Permissions Request form tained herein. The Gale Group, Inc. accepts to Or you can visit our Internet site at and submit your request by fax or mail to: payment for listing; and inclusion in the pub- http://www.gale.com lication of any organization, agency, institu- tion, publication, service, or individual does not imply endorsement of the editors or pub- lisher. Errors brought to the attention of the publisher and verified to the satisfaction of the publisher will be corrected in future edi- tions. LIBRARY OF CONGRESS CATALOGING-IN-PUBLICATION DATA Encyclopedia of Russian history / James R. Millar, editor in chief. p. cm. Includes bibliographical references and index. ISBN 0-02-865693-8 (set hardcover) — ISBN 0-02-865694-6 (v. 1) — ISBN 0-02-865695-4 (v. 2) — ISBN 0-02-865696-2 (v. 3) — ISBN 0-02-865697-0 (v. 4) 1. Russia—History—Encyclopedias. 2. Soviet Union—History—Encyclopedias. 3. Russia (Federation)—History—Encyclopedias. I. Millar, James R., 1936- DK14.E53 2003 947’.003—dc21 2003014389 This title is also available as an e-book. ISBN 0-02-865907-4 (set) Contact your Gale sales representative for ordering information. Printed in the United States of America 10 9 8 7 6 5 4 3 2 1 Pre face . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . v i i CONTENTS Abbrev ia t ions and Acronyms . . . . . x i i i L i s t o f Ar t ic le s . . . . . . . . . . . . . . xv L i s t o f Cont r ibutor s . . . . . . . . . . . l i Out l ine o f Content s . . . . . . . . . l xxx i ENCYCLOPEDIA OF RUSSIAN HISTORY . . . . . . . . . . . . 1 Index . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 1737 Project Editors Joe Clements Shawn Corridor Editorial Assistants Ray Abruzzi, Frank Castronova, Jeffrey Galas, Deirdre Graves, Madeline Harris, Jan Klisz, Brigham Narins Imaging Lezlie Light, Kelly Quin Cartography XNR Productions (Madison, Wisconsin) Copyeditors Nancy Gratton, Bob Milch, Richard Rothschild, Diana Senechal EDITORIAL Photo Researcher Marybeth Kavanagh AND Caption Writer PRODUCTION Ann E. Robertson STAFF Proofreaders Jane Brennan, Shane Davis, Beth Fhaner, John Krol, Mary Russell, Jennifer Wisinski Indexer Laurie Andriot Art Director Pamela A. E. Galbreath Compositor GGS Information Services (York, Pennsylvania) Permissions Margaret A. Chamberlain Manager, Composition Mary Beth Trimper Assistant Manager, Composition Evi Seoud Manufacturing Wendy Blurton MACMILLAN REFERENCE USA Director, Publishing Operations Jill Lectka Vice President and Publisher Frank Menchaca Winston Churchill’s well-known description of Russia as a “riddle wrapped in a mystery inside an enigma” has been widely quoted because it has seemed so apt to Western observers. The Cyrillic alphabet appears mysterious to the uninitiated, as does the odd system of dual dates for key histori- cal events. Russia is huge and geographically re- mote, with over one hundred ethnic groups and as many languages. Historically, Russia stood on the margin of Europe proper, and Russian society ex- perienced the Renaissance and the Reformation, which shaped modern Europe, only partially and belatedly. Physical distance and prolonged isolation from Europe would be sufficient to enhance and promote a distinctive Russian culture. Russians have them- selves debated whether they are more European, or more Asian, or instead a unique Slavic civilization destined to provide the world with a “third” way. PREFACE Nikolai Gogol, one of Russia’s earliest and most original writers, expressed this messianic view in his novel Dead Souls, where he offered a speeding troika, a carriage drawn by three horses, as a metaphor for Russia: Russia, are you not speeding along like a fiery matchless troika? Beneath you the road is smoke, the bridges thunder, and everything is left far behind. At your passage the onlooker stops amazed as by a divine miracle. . . . Rus- sia, where are you flying? Answer me! There is no answer. The bells are tinkling and filling the air with their wonderful pealing; the air is torn and thundering as it turns to wind; everything on earth comes flying past and, looking askance at her, other peoples and states move aside and make way. The Encyclopedia of Russian History is designed to help dispel the mystery of Russia. It is the first encyclopedia in the English language to compre- hend the entirety of Russian history, from ancient Rus to the most recent events in post-Soviet Rus- sia. It is not aimed primarily at specialists in the area but at general readers, students, and scholars who are curious about Russia, have historical events, dates, and persons they wish to explore or papers to write on the widely varying topics and individuals contained herein. Contributors include top scholars in history, Russian studies, military history, economics, social science, literature, phi- losophy, music, and art history. The 1,500 entries have been composed by over 500 scholars from 16 countries. All were instructed to “historize” their entries, thereby placing them in the larger context of Russian history. Each entry is signed and fea- vii P R E F A C E tures carefully chosen cross references to related en- only in the United States, but also in Britain, Eu- tries as well as a bibliography of print and Inter- rope, and Russia. Twenty years ago it would not net sources as suggested additional readings. The have been possible to produce such a balanced, high four volumes contain over 300 black and white quality, and comprehensive encyclopedia. The last maps and photographs illustrating the text, and five decades or so of intensive scholarship have each volume contains color inserts portraying the greatly increased our knowledge and understand- beauty and scope of Russian peoples, art, and ar- ing of Russian history. chitecture, as well as important military and po- litical pictorials. Entries are arranged alphabetically, RUSSIAN HISTORY and the first volume includes a topical outline that As one views the length and breadth of the Rus- organizes articles by broad categories, thereby of- sian historical experience certain continuities and fering teachers and students alike an informed map recurring patterns stand out. Autocracy, for ex- of Russian history. A comprehensive subject index ample, has ancient and strong roots in Russian his- offers yet another entry point for the set, encour- tory. For most of its history, Russia was led by aging readers to explore the four volumes in greater all-powerful tsars, such as Peter the Great or depth. Nicholas I, who served willingly as autocrats, The encyclopedia is the product of recent schol- seemingly conscious of the difficulties inherent in arship. Russian studies began as a significant field ruling so large and diverse a country. Even those of study in the United States and Europe only dur- tsars who sought to modify the autocracy, such ing the Soviet era. Although a small number of as Alexander II, who emancipated the serfs, reversed scholars were active before World War II, particu- course when confronted with revolutionary or ni- larly in England, the field began to grow in the hilist opponents. Soviet communism lapsed into United States with the onset of the Cold War in the autocracy under Josef Stalin, who was perhaps the late 1940s. When the Soviet Union launched the most complete autocrat since Peter the Great. More first earth satellite, Sputnik, in 1957, a concern for recently, Russian President, Vladimir Putin, appears national security became a driving force for devel- to be tolerating a drift back toward autocracy in opment of Russian area studies. All fields grew es- reaction to the democratic impulses of Mikhail Gor- pecially rapidly in the 1960s and 1970s, for it was bachev and Boris Yeltsin. He seems to relish com- recognized that study of the contemporary Soviet parison of his rule to that of Peter the Great. social system would require in-depth knowledge of the language, history, and culture of Russia. In the With the exception of the years under Soviet United States, for example, both the federal gov- communism, Orthodoxy has been autocracy’s ernment and private foundations such as the Ford twin. Historically, the Russian Orthodox Church Foundation and the Carnegie Endowment funded has successfully resisted attempts to separate graduate Russian studies on an almost “crash” ba- church and state and has offered support and jus- sis. Whereas the Russian Institute of Columbia Uni- tification for autocracy in return. Consequently, versity and the Russian Research Center at Harvard the church and state have not welcomed religious dominated the field initially, by the end of the diversity or promoted tolerance. Judaism, Catholi- 1960s all major research institutions had Russian cism, and other Christian denominations, Islam, studies programs and were producing new Ph.D.s and other religious faiths have suffered persecution in the field. In fact, most of the scholars who have and restrictions over the years. The Soviet era dif- ever received Ph.D.s in the various fields of Rus- fered only in than all religions were persecuted in sian history, social science, arts, and so forth, are the name of official atheism. The long-term trend still active scholars. The field of Russian-Soviet has apparently reasserted itself as the growing studies now has better coverage and higher qual- strength of the Russian Orthodox Church in the ity than ever. The 1991 collapse of the Soviet Union post-Soviet years has featured renewed attempts to ended the ideological constraints that communism exclude religious competition. had placed on scholarly publication, allowing scholarship to blossom in post-Soviet Russia as Territorial expansion has characterized the de- well. Researchers now have unprecedented access velopment of Russia from the earliest days, usu- to archival and other historical materials—and to ally through warfare and hostile partitions. The the Russian people as well. The editors and I have Great Northern War brought Russia to the Baltic been fortunate, therefore, to be able to select as our coast, while the wars of the nineteenth century ex- contributors—the most outstanding scholars not panded Russia’s power into Central Asia. Expan- viii E N C Y C L O P E D I A O F R U S S I A N H I S T O R Y P R E F A C E sion under the tsars included annexing territories policies have been undercut by an ambiguous occupied by settled peoples, as in Ukraine, Poland, commitment to democratization and marketiza- and Finland, and also by nomadic tribes, as in Cen- tion. tral Asia, and the Caucuses. The outcome of World These issues, autocracy, Orthodoxy, territorial War II extended Moscow’s reach into Eastern Eu- expansionism, modernization, and cultural unique- rope, and during the Cold War Russia supported ness, have appeared, disappeared, and reappeared regimes in Afghanistan, Cuba, and insurgent throughout Russian history. Western and Russian movements in Central America and Africa. historians have argued at length about the strength, The process of empire-building brought more significance, and permanence of these themes, and than 120 ethnic and national groups under Rus- the articles contained in this encyclopedia explore sian rule. It was a costly exercise requiring a large these issues as impartially and objectively as pos- standing army. Russification versus promoting lo- sible. cal languages and cultures in these territories was a recurring issue under tsars and commissars alike, There is no question, however, about the unique, and it remains an issue today in the Russian Fed- unparalleled contributions of Russian culture to eration. The collapse first of the Soviet empire in art, music, literature, philosophy, and science. East-Central Europe in 1988–1989 and then of the Where would we be without Glinka, Mussorgsky, USSR itself in 1991 caused an equivalent contrac- Tchaikovsky, Pushkin, Gogol, Dostoyevsky, Tol- tion in Moscow’s power and undermined the econ- stoy, Chekhov, Rublev, Mendeleyev, Sakharov and omy as well. Consequently, although Russia’s the many, many other artists, thinkers, and scien- leaders have sought to maintain and even increase tists that Russia’s citizens of all nationalities have influence in what only Russians call the “near produced? The editors and I hope that the reader abroad,” that is the former republics of the USSR, will use this encyclopedia to sample the richness of the empire has shrunk to its smallest extent since Russian history and be induced to explore Russian the eighteenth century, and the Russia Federation’s culture in depth. influence in its former republics, not to mention Eastern and Central Europe, has been severely con- STRUCTURE AND ORGANIZATION OF strained by a lack of funds as well as by local na- THE ENCYCLOPEDIA PROJECT tionalist feelings. When Macmillan Reference USA approached me Successful modernization of Europe has been seeking an editor in chief for a projected Encyclope- viewed by Russians as either a possible model for dia of Russian History, I realized that if I could per- Russia’s development or as a threat to her distinc- suade the best scholars in the field to serve as tive, peculiar social, political and economic institu- Associate Editors and on an Editorial Board, and if tions. From Russia’s vantagepoint on the periphery we could persuade other top scholars to write of Europe, to modernize has meant to Westernize, entries, the experience would be educational and with all the political and economic baggage that highly worthwhile. I also realized that it would that implies. Periodically, Russia’s leaders have necessarily be a “labor of love” for all involved. Par- opened the “door” to Europe, as Peter the Great put ticipating scholars would have to believe in the in- it, only to have it closed or restricted by those who trinsic value of the project. I first approached Dr. have sought to maintain and foster Russia’s unique Ann Robertson, who was serving as Managing Ed- civilization and its messianic mission in world his- itor of my journal, Problems of Post-Communism, to tory. In one form or another there has been a re- see whether she would be willing to contribute her curring struggle since the time of Peter the Great outstanding editorial skills as well as her expertise between the Slavophiles and the Westernizers, and in political science to work closely with me as Se- this was even true during the Soviet era. Lenin and nior Associate Editor on the encyclopedia. Next I Trotsky and the Old Bolsheviks thought they were approached Professor Nicholas Riasanovsky of Uni- opening Russia to a global communist system. versity of California at Berkeley. As the leading his- Stalin closed it tightly and created an autarkic econ- torian of Russia and director of innumerable Ph.D. omy. Nikita Khrushchev, Gorbachev, and Yeltsin dissertations in the field, Professor Riasanovsky opened Russia once again to the West, ultimately represented the keystone in the construction of the with catastrophic consequences for the empire. It editorial committee. I knew that his name would has been difficult, however, to overcome the pull assure other scholars of the serious academic na- of the “Russian idea,” and post-Soviet development ture of the project. I was soon able to recruit an E N C Y C L O P E D I A O F R U S S I A N H I S T O R Y ix P R E F A C E awesome set of associate editors: Daniel Kaiser of and culture. As a result, articles in the Encyclope- Grinnell College, Louise McReynolds of the Univer- dia describe: sity of Hawaii at Manoa, Donald Raleigh of the Historical Events University of North Carolina, and Ronald Suny of Documents, Declarations, or Treaties the University of Chicago. With their assistance we Military Campaigns or Battles recruited an equally outstanding Advisory Board. The Arts, Literature, Philosophy, or Science Below are very brief biographies of the distin- Economic Developments or Strategies guished members on the Editorial Board: Ethnic Groups Geographical Regions Editor in Chief James R. Millar (Ph.D. Cornell Political or Territorial Units (Cities, Regions, Gov- University) is professor of economics and interna- ernment Ministries) tional affairs at the Institute for European, Rus- Countries Prominent in Russian History sian and Eurasian Studies at the George Washington Government Policies or Programs University. His primary areas of research are So- Organizations, Movements, or Political Parties viet/Russian economic history and economics of Influential Individuals the transition. Basic Terms or Phrases Daniel H. Kaiser (Ph.D. University of Chicago) Over the next few months members of the ed- is professor of history at Grinnell College in Iowa. itorial board wrote scope statements and identified His academic specialty is history and family life in word lengths (ranging from 250 to 5,000 words) early modern Russia. for the articles in their segment of the table of con- Louise McReynolds (Ph.D. University of tents. Our goal was to produce four volumes and Chicago) is professor of history at the University one million words, a quota we easily could have of Hawaii. She specializes in Russian intellectual exceeded. After authors were commissioned and as- history and cultural studies. signments completed, each article was read by the appropriate member of the Editorial Board and by Donald J. Raleigh (Ph.D. Indiana University) is the Editor in Chief for final approval. Macmillan professor of history at the University of North Car- Reference staff has edited the entries for clarity, olina, Chapel Hill. His research specialization is consistency, and style. twentieth-century Russian and Soviet history and A number of transliteration systems exist for the Russian civil war. presenting Russian proper names and terms in the Nicholas V. Riasanovsky (D.Phil. Oxford Uni- English language. As the main audience for the en- versity) is professor emeritus of history at the Uni- cyclopedia is not expected to be familiar with the versity of California at Berkeley. He is the author Russian language, strict adherence to any one sys- of A History of Russia (New York: Oxford Univer- tem could appear artificial and intimidating. The sity Press, 1963, sixth edition, 1999). editors decided to use standard American spelling of well-known proper names as they would appear Ann E. Robertson (Ph.D. George Washington in the New York Times (e.g., Boris Yeltsin, not Boris University) is managing editor of the journal Prob- El’tsin). In all other cases transliterations conform lems of Post-Communism, National Council for to the conventions established by the U.S. Board on Eurasian and East European Research. She special- Geographic Names. Within this system we made a izes in post-Soviet political science. few exceptions: ligatures, soft signs, and hard signs Ronald Grigor Suny (Ph.D. Columbia Univer- are omitted; names ending in “-ii,” “-yi,” or “-yy” sity, 1968) is professor of political science at the are shortened to “-y”; and names of tsars and saints University of Chicago. His research specialty is have been Anglicized, as Peter the Great and Saint comparative politics and Russian history with spe- Basil, not Petr and Vasily. The editors believe that cial attention to non-Russian peoples. this modified system for transliteration will be more readable and understandable than the alter- The editorial board assembled at George Wash- natives. ington University in January 2001 to plan the en- cyclopedia. The topics we identified eventually Dates in Russian history can be somewhat con- totaled 1,500 entries. We decided to create basic ar- fusing because tsarist Russia continued to use “Old ticle categories in an attempt to capture the range Style” (O.S.) dates, based on the Julian calendar, up and scope of over 1,000 years of Russian history to the 1917 Revolution. In 1917 the Julian calen- x E N C Y C L O P E D I A O F R U S S I A N H I S T O R Y

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