Encyclopedia of Plant and Crop Science (Print) (ENCYCLOPEDIA OF PLANT & CROP SCIENCE) PDF
Preview Encyclopedia of Plant and Crop Science (Print) (ENCYCLOPEDIA OF PLANT & CROP SCIENCE)
Contents Agricultural Origins: Old World \ Taylor A. Steeves Agriculture and Biodiversity \ Deborah Stinner Agriculture: Why and How Did it Begin? \ David R. Harris Air Pollutant Interactions with Pests and Pathogens \ Andreas von Tiedemann Air Pollutants: Effects of Ozone on Crop Yield and Quality \ Håkan Pleijel Air Pollutants: Interactions with Elevated Carbon Dioxide \ Hans-Joachim Weigel Air Pollutants: Mode of Action \ Robert L. Heath Air Pollutants: Responses of Plant Communities \ Andreas Fangmeier Alternative Feedstocks for Bioprocessing \ Joseph J. Bozell Amino Acid and Protein Metabolism \ Estela M. Valle Aneuploid Mapping in Diploids \ P. K. Gupta Aneuploid Mapping in Polyploids \ David Stelly Anoxia Effects on Plant Physiology \ Elena Loreti, Amedeo Alpi, and Pierdomenico Perata Anther and Microspore Culture and Production of Haploid Plants \ Liliya D. Serazetdinova and Horst Lörz Arabidopsis thaliana: Characteristics and Annotation of a Model Genome \ Tanya Z. Berardini and Seung Y. Rhee Arabidopsis Transcription Factors: Genome-wide Comparative Analysis Among Eukaryotes \ José Luis Riechmann Archaeobotanial Remains: New Dating Methods \ Lawrence Kaplan Aromatic Plants for the Flavor and Fragrance Industries \ Brian M. Lawrence Ascorbic Acid: An Essential Micronutrient Provided by Plants \ Patricia L. Conklin ATP and NADPH \ Wayne Frasch B Chromosomes \ R. Neil Jones Bacterial Attachment to Leaves \ Martin Romantschuk Bacterial Blight of Rice \ Bart Cottyn and Tom Mew Bacterial Pathogens: Detection and Identification Methods \ Jan M. van der Wolf and Cor D. Schoen Bacterial Pathogens: Early Interactions with Host Plants \ Gwyn A. Beattie Bacterial Products Important for Plant Disease: Cell-Surface Components \ P. K. Chakrabarty, A. Chatterjee, W. Gassmann, and A. K. Chatterjee Bacterial Products Important for Plant Disease: Diffusable Metabolites as Regulatory Signals \ P. K. Chakrabarty, A. Chatterjee, W. Gassmann, and A. K. Chatterjee Bacterial Products Important for Plant Disease: Extracellular Enzymes \ P. K. Chakrabarty, A. Chatterjee, W. Gassmann, and A. K. Chatterjee Bacterial Products Important for Plant Disease: Toxins and Growth Factors \ P. K. Chakrabarty, W. Gassmann, A. Chatterjee, and A. K. Chatterjee Bacterial Soft Rots: Erwinia as a Paradigm \ Holly Slater, Martin Welch, and George Salmond Bacterial Survival and Dissemination in Insects \ Alexander H. Purcell Bacterial Survival and Dissemination in Natural Environments \ Steven Lindow Bacterial Survival and Dissemination in Seeds and Planting Material \ Diane A. Cuppels Bacterial Survival Strategies \ Cindy E. Morris and Christine M. H. Riffaud Bacteria-Plant Host Specificity Determinants \ Alan Vivian Beneficial Phytoplasma Infection: Free Branching of Poinsettia \ Ing-Ming Lee, Michael J. Klopmeyer, and Dawn E. Gundersen- Rindal Biennial Crops \ Irwin L. Goldman Bioinformatics \ Michael T. Clegg and Peter L. Morrell Biological Control in the Phyllosphere \ John H. Andrews Biological Control of Nematodes \ Brian R. Kerry Biological Control of Oomycetes and Fungal Pathogens \ Eric B. Nelson Biological Control of Weeds \ Linda M. Wilson and Mark Schwarzlaender Biosafety Applications in the Plant Sciences: Expanding Notions About \ Emily E. Pullins Biosafety Approaches to Transgenic Crop Plant Gene Flow \ Terrie Klinger Biosafety Considerations for Transgenic Insecticidal Plants: Non-Target Herbivores, Detritivores, and Pollinators \ J. E. Losey and John J. Obrycki and R. A. Hufbauer Biosafety Considerations for Transgenic Insecticidal Plants: Non-Target Predators and Parasitoids \ J. E. Losey, John J. Ob- rycki, and R. A. Hufbauer Biosafety Programs for Genetically Engineered Plants: An Adaptive Approach \ Anne R. Kapuscinski and Emily E. Pullins Biosafety Science: Overview of Plant Risk Issues \ L. L. Wolfenbarger and Paul R. Phifer Boron \ Patrick H. Brown Breeding Biennial Crops \ Irwin L. Goldman Breeding Clones \ Rodomiro Ortiz Breeding for Durable Resistance \ Raoul A. Robinson Breeding for Nutritional Quality \ Brian J. Just and Philipp W. Simon Breeding for Subsistence Agriculture: Developing Technologies for Resource-Poor Farmers \ Shivaji Pandey Breeding Hybrids \ Arnel R. Hallauer Breeding Hybrids and Marker-Assisted Selection \ Alain Charcosset Breeding Plants and Heterosis \ Kendall R. Lamkey and Jode W. Edwards Breeding Plants with Transgenes \ Duska Stojsin and Carl F. Behr Breeding Pure Line Cultivars \ P. Stephen Baenziger, Mustafa Erayman, Hikmet Budak, and B. Todd Campbell Breeding Self-Pollinated Crops through Marker-Assisted Selection \ Brian W. Diers Breeding Synthetic Cultivars \ Steven E. Smith Breeding Using Doubled Haploids \ Richard E. Veilleux Breeding Widely Adapted Cultivars: Examples from Maize \ A. Forrest Troyer Breeding: Choice of Parents \ John W. Dudley Breeding: Evolutionary Aspects \ Irwin L. Goldman Breeding: Genotype by Environment Interaction \ Manjit S. Kang Breeding: Incorporation of Exotic Germplasm \ James B. Holland Breeding: Mating Designs \ Charles W. Stuber Breeding: Participatory Approaches \ J. R. Witcombe Breeding: Recurrent Selection and Gain from Selection \ James G. Coors Breeding: The Backcross Method \ William F. Tracy C3 Photosynthesis to Crassulacean Acid Metabolism Shift in Mesembryanthenum Crystallinum: A Stress Tolerance Mecha- nism\ John C. Cushman Calvin Cycle Intermediates \ Richard G. Jensen Canola: Applications in High Performance Lubricants \ Duane L. Johnson Carotenoids in Photosynthesis \ Britta Förster and Barry J. Pogson Cellular Water Relations \ George C. Papageorgiou Cereal Sprouting \ C. W. Wrigley Chemical Weed Control \ Don W. Morishita Chlorophylls \ Robert D. Willows Chloroplast Genomes: Architecture of Ancestors \ Klaus-Viktor Kowallik Chromosome Banding \ Takashi R. Endo Chromosome Manipulation and Crop Improvement \ Adam J. Lukaszewski Chromosome Rearrangements \ Tomás Naranjo Chromosome Structure and Evolution \ Ingo Schubert and Andreas Houben Circadian Clock in Plants \ C. Robertson McClung Citrus Canker \ Rui Pereira Leite Junior Classification and Identification of Nematodes \ James G. Baldwin Classification and Nomenclature of Plant Pathogenic Bacteria \ John Young Coevolution of Insects and Plants \ M. Deane Bowers Columbian Exchange: The Role of Analog Crops in the Adoption and Dissemination of Exotic Cultigens \ David E. Williams Commercial Micropropagation \ M. C. Gopinathan Competition: Responses to Shade by Neighbors \ Carlos L. Ballaré Control of Plant Virus Diseases \ Jitender S. Yadav, Roger N. Beachy, and Claude M. Fauquet Crop Domestication in Africa \ Rémy S. Pasquet Crop Domestication in China \ Tracey Lie-Dan Lu Crop Domestication in Mesoamerica \ A. Delgado-Salinas and J. Caballero and A. Casas Crop Domestication in Prehistoric Eastern North America \ David L. Asch and John P. Hart Crop Domestication in Southeast Asia \ Victor Paz and Ofer Bar-Yosef Crop Domestication in the American Tropics: Phytolith Analyses \ Dolores R. Piperno Crop Domestication in the American Tropics: Starch Grain Analyses \ Dolores R. Piperno and Irene Holst Crop Domestication in the Andes and Lowland South America \ Barbara Pickersgill Crop Domestication: Fate of Genetic Diversity \ Gideon Ladizinsky Crop Domestication: Founder Crops \ Daniel Zohary Crop Domestication: Role of Unconscious Selection \ Daniel Zohary Crop Improvement: Broadening the Genetic Base for \ Toby Hodgkin Crop Responses to Elevated Carbon Dioxide \ Leon Hartwell Allen Jr. and P.V. Vara Prasad Cropping Systems: Irrigated Continuous Rice Systems of Tropical and Subtropical Asia \ Achim Dobermann and Kenneth G. Cassman Cropping Systems: Irrigated Rice and Wheat of the Indo-gangetic Plains \ David J. Connor Cropping Systems: Rain-fed Maize-Soybean Rotations of North America \ Douglas L. Karlen Cropping Systems: Slash and Burn Cropping Systems of the Tropics \ Ken E. Giller and Cheryl Palm Cropping Systems: Yield Improvement of Wheat in Temperate Northwestern Europe \ Hubert J. Spiertz Crops and Environmental Change \ Jørgen E. Olesen Cross-species and Cross-genera Comparisons in the Grasses \ Ismail M. Dweikat Crown Gall \ Thomas Burr Cytogenetics of Apomixis \ Hans de Jong Drought and Drought Resistance \ Graeme C. Wright and Nageswararao C. Rachaputi Drought Resistant Ideotypes: Future Technologies and Approaches for the Development of \ Nageswararao C. Rachaputi and Graeme C. Wright Echinacea: Uses as a Medicine \ Mario R. Morales Ecology and Agricultural Sciences \ Jon K. Piper Ecology: Functions, Patterns, and Evolution \ Fernando Valladares Economic Impact of Insects \ David Pimentel Ecophysiology \ Luis Balaguer Emerging Fungal and Oomycete Plant Pathogens \ John H. Andrews Endosperm Development \ Philip W. Becraft Environmental Concerns and Agricultural Policy \ Floor Brouwer Epigenetic Variation and Phenotypic Diversity \ E. Jean Finnegan and Estelle Jaligot Evolution of Plant Genome Microstructure \ Ian Bancroft Ex Situ Conservation of Genetic Resources: Characterization and Validation \ Bert Visser Ex Situ Evaluation: Core Collections \ Larry D. Robertson Ex Situ Genetic Resource Conservation: Plantations \ N. Rajanaidu and V. Ramanatha Rao Exchange of Trace Gases Between Crops and the Atmosphere \ Jürgen Kreuzwieser and Heinz Rennenberg Exciton Theory \ Su Lin Farmer Selection and Conservation of Crop Varieties \ Daniela Soleri and David A. Cleveland Female Gametogenesis \ Jagreet Kaur and Imran Siddiqi Fire Blight \ John L. Norelli Fixed-Nitrogen Deficiency: Overcoming by Nodulation \ Michelle R. Lum and Ann M. Hirsch Floral Induction \ Joe Colasanti Floral Scent \ Natalia Dudareva Flow Cytogenetics \ Jaroslav Dolezel, Marie Kubaláková, Jan Vrána, and Jan Bartos Flower and Fruit Feeding Insects \ Antônio R. Panizzi Flower Development \ Thomas Jack Fluorescence In Situ Hybridization \ Yasuhiko Mukai Fluorescence: A Probe of Photosynthetic Apparatus \ J. Kenneth Hoober Functional Genomics and Gene Action Knockouts \ Jacqueline Heard Fungal and Oomycete Plant Pathogens: Cell Biology \ Adrienne R. Hardham Gene Banks: Utilization in Plant Breeding \ Margaret E. Smith Gene Expression Modulation in Plants by Sugars in Response to Environmental Changes \ Barry Wobbes and Sjef C. M. Smeekens Gene Flow Between Crops and Their Wild Progenitors \ Roberto Papa and Paul Gepts Gene Silencing: A Defense Mechanism Against Alien Genetic Information \ Peter De Haan Genetic and Epigenetic Variation Released Upon Polyploidization \ Avraham A. Levy and Moshe Feldman Genetic Conservation Ex Situ: Botanical Gardens, Arboreta, and Herbaria \ Mary T. Burke Genetic Conservation of Genomic Resources \ David A. Kudrna and Rod A. Wing Genetic Conservation of Nonseed Materials \ Charles J. Simon Genetic Diversity Among Weeds \ Michael J. Christoffers Genetic Engineering Experiments: Design and Selection of Candidate Genes \ David A. Somers Genetic Loads \ Ohmi Ohnishi Genetic Resource Conservation of Seeds \ Florent Engelmann Genetic Resources of Medicinal and Aromatic Plants from Brazil \ Roberto Fontes Vieira Genetic Resources: Access, Benefit-Sharing, and Bioprospecting Issues \ Santiago Carrizosa Genetically Engineered Crops with Resistance Against Insects \ Johnie N. Jenkins Genetically Modified Oil Crops \ Denis J. Murphy Genome Rearrangements and Survival of Plant Populations to Changes in Environmental Conditions \ Pier Giorgio Cionini Genome Size \ Michael D. Bennett Genome Structure and Gene Content in Plant and Protist Mitochondrial DNAs \ Michael W. Gray Genomic Approaches to Understanding Plant Pathogenic Bacteria \ João C. Setubal and Ana C. R. da Silva Genomic Imprinting in Plants \ Daphné Autran and Jean-Philippe Vielle-Calzada Genomics of Fungal Plant Pathogens \ Brett M. Tyler Germplasm Acquisition \ David M. Spooner and Karen A. Williams Germplasm Collections: Regeneration in Maintenance \ Linda Pollak Germplasm Enhancement Through Mutation Techniques \ Karin Nichterlein and Miroslaw Maluszynski Germplasm Maintenance \ Henry L. Shands Germplasm: International and National Centers \ Jonathan Robinson and N. Murthi Anishetty Glycolysis\ Florencio E. Podestá Herbicide Resistant Crops, Impact of \ Micheal D. K. Owen Herbicide Resistant Weeds \ Carol Mallory-Smith Herbicides in the Environment: Fate of \ Kim A. Anderson and Jennifer L. Schaeffer Herbs, Spices, and Condiments \ Katerina P. Svoboda Heretosis: Effects of Long Term Selection \ Howie Smith Human Cholinesterases from Plants for Detoxification \ Tsafrir S. Mor and Hermona Soreq Hypersensitive Response in Plants \ Ron Mittler In Situ Conservation for Genetic Diversity: Reserve Designation and Design \ Ayfer Tan and Ahmet Semsettin Tan In Situ Genetic Resource Conservation: Local Parks and Reserves \ V. Arivudai Nambi and L. R. Gopinath In Vitro Chromosome Doubling \ V. Sarasan and A. V. Roberts In Vitro Flowering \ Prakash Lakshmanan and Acram M. Taji In Vitro Morphogenesis in Plants - Recent Advances \ Gregory C. Phillips In Vitro Plant Regeneration by Organogenesis \ Janet R. Gorst In Vitro Pollination and Fertilization \ Acram M. Taji and Jennifer Williams In Vitro Production of Triploid Plants \ Sant S. Bhojwani In Vitro Tuberization \ Yasunori Koda Insect Dietary Needs: Plants as Food for Insects \ Spencer Behmer Insect Interactions with Other Pests (Weeds, Pathogens, Nematodes) \ Jason Tylianakis, Geoff M. Gurr, and Steve D. Wratten Insect Life History Strategies: Development and Growth \ Jeffrey C. Miller Insect Life History Strategies: Reproduction and Survival \ Jeffrey C. Miller Insect/Host Plant Resistance in Crops \ C. Michael Smith Insect/Plant Interactions \ Sujaya Rao Insects as Vectors of Disease Agents \ Alexander H. Purcell and Rodrigo P. P. Almeida Integrated Pest Management \ Marcos Kogan Intellectual Property and Plant Science \ Susanne Somersalo and John Dodds International Treaties Relevant to the Management of Plant Genetic Resources \ David Cooper and N. Murthi Anishetty Interphase Nucleus, The \ Paul Fransz Interspecific Hybridization \ D. S. Brar Isoprenoid Metabolism \ Russell K. Monson and Todd N. Rosenstiel Larvicidal Proteins from Bacillus thuringiensisin in Soil: Release, Persistence, and Effects \ G. Stotzky Late Blight \ Francine Govers and Maita Latijnhouwers Leaf Cuticle \ Gwyn A. Beattie Leaf Structure \ Vincent P. Gutschick and Lou Ellen Kay Leaf Surface Sugars \ Johan Leveau Leaves and Canopies: Physical Environment \ George W. Sundin and Cindy E. Morris Leaves and the Effects of Elevated Carbon Dioxide Levels \ Stephen A. Prior, Seth G. Pritchard, and G. Brett Runion Legumes: Nutraceutical and Pharmaceutical Uses \ J. Bradley Morris Lesquerella Potential for Commercialization \ David A. Dierig, Michael A. Foster, Terry A. Isbell, and Dennis T. Ray Light-Harvesting Complexes \ Laura Eggink Lipid Metabolism \ Jean-Claude Kader Long-Term Selection for Biochemical Traits \ John W. Dudley Long-Term Selection: Repeatability of Response in Finite Populations \ Bruce Walsh Male Gametogenesis \ David Honys and David Twell Mammalian Cytokines Produced in Plants \ Chihiro Sugimoto and Takeshi Matsumura Management of Bacterial Diseases of Plants: Biological Control \ Mark Wilson Management of Bacterial Diseases: Chemical Methods \ Donald L. Hopkins Management of Bacterial Diseases: Regulatory Aspects \ Jaap D. Janse Management of Diseases in Seed Crops \ Lindsey J. du Toit Management of Fungal and Oomycete Diseases: Fruit Crops \ Patricia S. McManus Management of Fungal and Oomycete Diseases: Turfgrass \ Michael J. Boehm, Joseph W. Rimelspach, and Samantha L. Thomas Management of Fungal and Oomycete Diseases: Vegetable Crops \ Debra Ann Inglis Management of Nematode Diseases: Options \ Gregory L. Tylka Marigold Flower: Industrial Applications \ James N. BeMiller Mass Spectrometry For Identifying Proteins, Protein Modifications, And Protein Interactions In Plants \ Michael Fromm Mechanisms of Infection: Imperfect Fungi \ Gyungsoon Park and Jin-Rong Xu Mechanisms of Infection: Oomycetes \ Paul R. J. Birch and David E. L. Cooke Mechanisms of Infection: Rusts \ Matthias Hahn Medical Molecular Pharming: Therapeutic Recombinant Antibodies, Biopharmaceuticals and Edible Vaccines in Transgenic Plants Engineered via the Chloroplast Genome \ Henry Daniell Meiosis\ Wojciech P. Pawlowski, Lisa C. Harper, and W. Zacheus Cande Metabolic Engineering of the Plant Phenylpropanoid Pathway \ Oliver Yu Metabolism, Primary: Engineering Pathways \ Alberto A. Iglesias Metabolism, Secondary: Engineering Pathways of \ David Rhodes, Gregory J. Peel, and Natalia Dudareva Milkweed: Commercial Applications \ Herbert D. Knudsen Minor Nutrients \ Wolfgang Schmidt Mitochondrial Respiration \ Agepati S. Raghavendra Mitosis\ Dénes Dudits and Attila Fehér Molecular Analysis of Chromosome Landmarks \ James A. Birchler, Juan M. Vega, and Akio Kato Molecular Biology Applied to Weed Science \ Patrick J. Tranel and Federico Trucco Molecular Evolution \ Michael T. Clegg Molecular Farming in Plants: Technology Platforms \ Rainer Fischer, Neil J. Emans, Richard M. Twyman, and Stefan Schillberg Molecular Integrated Cytogenetic Mapping \ Jiming Jiang Molecular Technologies and Their Role Maintaining and Utilizing Genetic Resources \ Amanda J. Garris, Alexandra M. Casa, and Stephen Kresovich Mutational Processes \ Michael T. Clegg and Peter L. Morrell Mutualisms in Plant-Insect Interactions \ W. P. Stephen Mycorrhizal Evolution \ David M. Wilkinson Mycorrhizal Symbioses \ Roger T. Koide Mycotoxins Produced by Plant Pathogenic Fungi \ K. Thirumala-Devi and Nancy Keller Natural Rubber \ Dennis T. Ray Nematode Biology, Morphology, and Physiology \ Stephen A. Lewis, David J. Chitwood, and Edward C. McGawley Nematode Feeding Strategies \ Richard S. Hussey Nematode Infestations: Assessment \ K. R. Barker and Ke Dong Nematode Parasitism Genes \ Eric L. Davis Nematode Population Dynamics \ Robert McSorley Nematode Problems: Most Prevalent \ Larry Duncan Nematodes and Host Resistance \ Philip A. Roberts Nematodes: Ecology \ Howard Ferris New Industrial Crops in Europe \ Jan E. G. Van Dam and Wolter Elbersen New Secondary Metabolites: Potential Evolution \ David R. Gang Nitrogen \ Peter J. Lea Nonchemical Weed Control: New Directions \ Bo Melander Non-Infectious Seed Disorders \ H. K. Manandhar and S. B. Mathur Non-wood Plant Fibers: Applications in Pulp and Papermaking \ Joseph E. Atchison Nucleic Acids Metabolism \ Hiroshi Ashihara Nutraceuticals and Functional Foods: Market Innovation \ Nicholas Kalaitzandonakes, James D. Kaufman, and Lucy Zakharova Oomycete-Plant Interactions: Current Issues in \ Mark Gijzen Organic Agriculture as a Form of Sustainable Agriculture \ John P. Reganold Osmotic Adjustment and Osmoregulation \ Neil C. Turner Oxidative Stress and DNA Modification in Plants \ Alex Levine Oxygen Production \ Charles F. Yocum Paper and Pulp: Agro-based Resources for \ George A. White Parasitic Weeds \ James H. Westwood Pharmaceutical Overproduction and Purification of Biopharmaceuticals Through His-tagged GUS-fusion Expressions in Chlo- roplasts \ Vanga Siva Reddy and Sadhu Leelavathi Pharmaceuticals in Plants \ Kazuhito Fujiyama Phenylpropanoids \ Kevin M. Davies Phosphorus\ Carroll P. Vance Photoacoustics: Listening to Plants \ Shmuel Malkin Photoperiodism and the Regulation of Flowering \ Isabelle A. Carré Photoreceptors and Associated Signaling I: Phytochromes \ Karen J. Halliday Photoreceptors and Associated Signaling II: Cryptochromes \ Chentao Lin Photoreceptors and Associated Signaling III: Phototropins \ Bethany Stone and Emmanuel Liscum Photoreceptors and Associated Signaling IV: UV Receptors \ T. H. Attridge and N. M. Cooley Photosynthate Partitioning and Transport \ Maria Fabiana Drincovich Photosynthesis and Stress \ Barbara Demmig-Adams, Volker Ebbert, and William W. Adams III Photosynthetic Pathways: Scarcity-Driven Evolution \ Stan R. Szarek Photosystems I and II Structures \ Andrew Webber Photosystems: Electron Flow Through \ Arlene Haffa Phyllosphere Microbial Diversity \ Mark J. Bailey, Ian P. Thompson, and Tracey M. Timms-Wilson Physiology of Crop Yield \ Gustavo Slafer and Roxana Savin Physiology of Herbivorous Insects \ Cedric Gillott Phytochemical Diversity of Secondary Metabolites \ Michael Wink Phytochrome and Cryptochrome Functions in Crop Plants \ Jim Weller Phytoremediation \ Clayton L. Rugh Phytoremediation: Advances Towards a New Cleanup Technology\ Adel Zayed Pierce’s Disease and Others Caused by Xylella fastidiosa \ John S. Hartung Plant Cell Culture and its Applications \ James M. Lee Plant Cell Tissue and Organ Culture: Concepts and Methodologies \ Darren O. Sage and Ian J. Puddephat Plant Defenses Against Insects: Constitutive and Induced Chemical Defenses \ Linda Walling Plant Defenses Against Insects: Physical Defenses \ Sanford D. Eigenbrode Plant Defenses Against Insects: Role of Endophytes \ Stanley H. Faeth Plant Diseases Caused by Bacteria \ Clarence I. Kado Plant Diseases Caused by Phytoplasmas \ Elisabeth Boudon-Padieu Plant Diseases Caused by Sub-viral Agents \ Peter Palukaitis Plant DNA Virus Diseases \ Robert L. Gilbertson and Maria R. Rojas Plant Pathogen Interactions: Evolution \ Ian Crute Plant Produced Recombinant Therapeutics \ Lokesh Joshi, Miti M. Shah, C. Robert Flynn, and Alyssa Panitch Plant Response to Stress: Abscisic Acid and Water Stress \ Jun Huang and Jian-Kang Zhu Plant Response to Stress: Abscisic Acid Fluxes \ Wolfram Hartung Plant Response to Stress: Biochemical Adaptations to Phosphate Deficiency \ William C. Plaxton Plant Response to Stress: Critical Periods in Plant Development \ G. Nissim Amzallag Plant Response to Stress: Genome Reorganization in Flax \ Christopher A. Cullis Plant Response to Stress: Mechanisms of Accommodation \ H. R. Lerner Plant Response to Stress: Modifications of the Photosynthetic Apparatus \ Eevi Rintamäki Plant Response to Stress: Phosphatidic Acid as a Second Messenger \ Christa Testerink and Teun Munnik Plant Response to Stress: Regulation of Plant Gene Expression to Drought \ Kazuo Shinozaki and Kazuko Yamaguchi-Shinozaki Plant Response to Stress: Role of Molecular Chaperones \ Barbara Despres and Pierre Goloubinoff Plant Response to Stress: Role of the Jasmonate Signal Transduction Pathway \ Mirna Atallah and Johan Memelink Plant Response to Stress: Source-sink Regulation by Stress \ Thomas Roitsch Plant Responses to Stress: Nematode Infection \ Godelieve Gheysen Plant Responses to Stress: Ultraviolet-B Light \ Brian R. Jordan Plant RNA Virus Diseases \ Bryce W. Falk and Roger Hull Plant Variety Protection in the United States \ Janice M. Strachan Plant Viral Synergisms \ John L. Sherwood Plant Virus Nomenclature and Taxonomy \ Edward P. Rybicki Plant Virus Replication \ Mike Shanks and George Lomonossoff Plant Virus Transmission \ Rose C. Gergerich Plant Virus: Structure and Assembly \ A. L. N. Rao Plant Viruses: Initiation of Infection \ James N. Culver Plasticity of Root Architecture: Developmental and Nutritional Aspects \ Wolfgang Schmidt and Margarete Müller Pollen-stigma Interactions \ Simon J. Hiscock Polyploidy \ Jan Dvorak Population Genetics \ Michael T. Clegg Population Genetics of Plant Pathogenic Fungi \ Bruce A. McDonald Post-Translational Modifications and Recombinant Therapeutic Proteins \ Lokesh Joshi, Miti M. Shah, C. Robert Flynn, and Alyssa Panitch Potassium and Other Macronutrients \ Patrick H. Brown Pre-agricultural Plant Gathering and Management \ M. Kat Anderson Protein Quality in Transgenic Plants: Improvements \ Jesse M. Jaynes Protoplast Applications in Biotechnology \ Michael R. Davey, P. Anthony, J. B. Power, and K. C. Lowe Protoplast Culture and Regeneration \ J. B. Power, Michael R. Davey, P. Anthony, and K. C. Lowe Quantitative Trait Locus Analyses of the Domestication Syndrome and Domestication Process \ Valérie Poncet, Thierry Robert, Aboubakry Sarr, and Paul Gepts Quantitative Trait Locus Mapping of Agronomic Traits\ Mark E. Sorrells Radiation Hybrid Mapping \ Ron J. Okagaki, Ralf G. Kynast, Howard W. Rines, and Ronald L. Phillips Recombination and Genetic Variation \ Clifford F. Weil Reconciling Agriculture with the Conservation of Tropical Forests \ Wil de Jong Regeneration from Guard Cells of Crop and Other Plant Species \ Jim M. Dunwell Retrotransposons and Their Contributions to Plant Genome and Gene Evolution \ Amar Kumar Rhizodeposition: Composition and Quantitative Aspects \ Günter Neumann Rhizosphere Management: Microbial Manipulation for Biocontrol \ Ben J.J. Lugtenberg and Faina D. Kamilova Rhizosphere: An Overview \ Roberto Pinton Rhizosphere: Biochemical Reactions \ Paolo Nannipieri Rhizosphere: Microbial Populations \ James M. Lynch Rhizosphere: Modeling \ Peter R. Darrah Rhizosphere: Nutrient Movement and Availability \ Philippe Hinsinger Rice\ Takuji Sasaki Rice Blast \ Guo-liang Wang and Jin-Rong Xu RNA-mediated Silencing \ Karin van Dijk and Heriberto Cerutti Root Membrane Activities Relevant to Plant-Soil Interactions \ Zeno Varanini Root-Feeding Insects \ Eli Levine Rubisco Activase \ Archie R. Portis Jr. Secondary Metabolites as Phytomedicines \ Donald P. Briskin Seed Banks and Seed Dormancy Among Weeds \ Lynn Fandrich Seed Borne Pathogens \ S. B. Mathur and H. K. Manandhar Seed Dormancy \ Alister J. Murdoch Seed Genebank: Functions, Acquisition Strategies, and Database Management \ Ardeshir B. Damania Seed Production \ Murray J. Hill Seed Testing Methods \ Daniel Curry Seed Vigor \ Alison A. Powell Seeds: Pathogen Transmission Through \ Curgonio Cappelli Sex Chromosomes in Plants \ M. Ruiz Rejón Shade Avoidance Syndrome and Its Impact on Agriculture \ Garry C. Whitelam Social Aspects of Sustainable Agriculture \ Frederick H. Buttel Somaclonal Variation: Origins and Causes \ Philip Larkin Somatic Cell Genetics of Banana \ D. K. Becker and M. K. Smith Somatic Embryogenesis in Plants \ Ray Rose Soy Wood Adhesives for Agro-based Composites \ Monlin Kuo and Deland J. Myers Sr. Spatial Dimension, The: Geographic Information Systems and Geostatistics \ Francis Pierce, Oliver Schabenberger, and Max Crandall Spatial Distribution of Weeds \ J.A. “Anita” Dille Starch \ Wolfgang Eisenreich and Adelbert Bacher Striga: A Subterranean Parasitic Angiosperm (Witchweed) \ John I. Yoder and Lytton John Musselman Sucrose \ Ed Etxeberria Sustainable Agriculture and Food Security \ Jules Pretty Sustainable Agriculture: Definition and Goals \ Glen C. Rains, W. Joe Lewis, and Dawn M. Olson Sustainable Agriculture: Economic Indicators \ David Pimentel Sustainable Agriculture: Ecological Indicators \ Stephen Jones Sustainable Agriculture: Philosophical Framework \ Paul B. Thompson Sweet Sorghum: Applications in Ethanol Production \ Glen C. Rains and John W. Worley Sweetgrass and its Use in African-American Folk Art \ Robert J. Dufault Switchgrass as a Bioenergy Crop \ Samuel B. McLaughlin and Lynn A. Kszos Symbioses with Rhizobia and Mycorrhizal Fungi: Microbe/Plant Interactions and Signal Exchange \ James E. Cooper Symbiotic Nitrogen Fixation \ Timothy R. McDermott Symbiotic Nitrogen Fixation: Plant Nutrition \ Timothy R. McDermott Symbiotic Nitrogen Fixation: Special Roles of Micronutrients \ David A. Dalton Tobamoviral Vectors: Developing a Production System for Pharmaceuticals in Transfected Plants \ Jennifer Lee Busto and Monto H. Kumagai Transformation Methods and Impact \ Karabi Datta and Swapan K. Datta Transgenes (GM) Sampling and Detection Methods in Seeds \ Alessandro Pellegrineschi Transgenes: Expression and Silencing of \ George C. Allen Transgenetic Plants: Breeding Programs for Sustainable Insect Resistance \ Michael B. Cohen Transgenic Crop Plants in the Environment \ R. James Cook Transgenic Crops: Regulatory Standards and Procedures of Research and Commercialization \ Qifa Zhang Transposons and Allelic Diversity \ L. Curtis Hannah and Clifford F. Weil Trichomes \ Stephen O. Duke UV Radiation Effects on Phyllosphere Microbes \ Thusitha S. Gunasekera UV Radiation Penetration in Plant Canopies \ Richard H. Grant Vaccines Produced in Transgenic Plants \ Hugh S. Mason Viral Host Genomics \ Steven A. Whitham Virus Assays: Detection and Diagnosis \ Clarissa J. Maroon-Lango Virus Induced Gene Silencing \ S. P. Dinesh-Kumar, Rajendra Marathe, and Radhamani Anandalakshmi Virus Movement in Plants \ Richard S. Nelson, Xin Shun Ding, and Shelly A. Carter Viruses and Viroids: Evolution \ Marilyn J. Roossinck Water Deficits: Development \ Kadambot H. M. Siddique Water Movement Through the Plant \ Jonathan P. Comstock Water Use Efficiency Including Carbon Isotope Discrimination \ Anthony G. Condon Wax Esters from Transgenic Plants \ Kathryn D. Lardizabal Weed Management in Less Developed Countries \ Peter R. Hobbs and Robin R. Bellinder Weed Management in Organic Cropping Systems \ Ilse A. Rasmussen Weeds in Turfgrass \ John C. Stier Wheat Rusts \ James A. Kolmer Yeast Two-Hybrid Technology\ Lisa Nodzon and Wen-Yuan Song Agricultural Origins: Old World Taylor A. Steeves Departmentof Biology,Universityof Saskatchewan,Saskatoon, Saskatchewan,Canada Abstract The origin of agriculture began about ten thousand years ago. Seven centres of origin have been identified,fourintheOldWorldandthreeintheNewWorld.TheoldestcentreisintheOldWorld at the eastern end of the Mediterranean Sea extending through Syria, Turkey, Iraq and Iran. Two separate origins were located in China, one in the south along the Yangtze River and another in thenorthinthevalleyoftheYellowRiver.ThefourthcentrewasinabandinAfricaextendingsouth of the Sahara. The transition was a gradual one in each separate case and the plants that were domesticatedweredistinctiveoftheparticularregion.Theoriginofagriculturecanbelookedupon as an evolutionary process in which the domesticated plants underwent substantial modifications. For the humans the transformation may also be looked upon as an evolutionary process but the changeshavebeenlargelyculturalratherthanphysical.Thereisgrowingevidencethatagricultural originswerenotentirelyrestrictedtothecentresbutoccurredtovaryingdegreesinotherlocations. INTRODUCTION The second oldest center of origin appears to have been in southern China along the Yangtze River, and For most of their history, humans have been hunters the age is believed to be around 8500 years. Rice was and gatherers and only in the past 10,000 years has the main crop, but various other plants were culti- agriculturebecomethebasisoffoodproduction.With- vated, including water caltrop and foxnut. Another out farming, human population remained low, prob- centeroforigininChinawasindependentlyestablished ably somewhere between 10 and 30 million and only along the Yellow River in the north, a 1000 years the invention and spread of agriculture have allowed later, around 7500 years ago. Here the original crops population to pass six billion and continue to grow. were millets and only much later was rice introduced Foralongtime,itwaswidelybelievedthatthediscov- to cultivation. The fourth old world center of origin ery of farming techniques was a unique invention in occurred much later about 4000 years ago in a band, the mountainous region east of the Mediterranean southoftheSaharaDesert.Heresorghum,millets,and Sea.Now,however,atleastsixotherindependentcen- adifferentspeciesofricewerethemajorcropsdomesti- ters of origin are recognized and evidence is emerging cated. Further study of the origin of agriculture has that there may be others.[1] Four of the centers of increasingly led to the conclusion that the recognized origin are in the old world and these will be the topic centersareimportant,butthatthereisevidenceofnon- of this article. centered origins including New Guinea and southeast Asia.[3,4] The age of organic materials found in excavations OLD WORLD CENTERS has for many years been determined by measuring the emissions of beta particles from carbon 14 formed The oldest center of origin in the old world is believed by cosmic rays acting on nitrogen. More recently, a to be in the Near East in a band called the Fertile newmethodusingacceleratormassspectrometrymea- Crescent, extending from the eastern end of the sures carbon 14 directly and can deal with very small Mediterranean Sea through Syria, Southern Turkey, quantities such as one seed. This technique has led to Iraq, and Iran. The age of this center is believed to the correction of a number of dates arrived at by the be 9000–9500 years, but there is growing support for older method.[1] an age of at least 10,000 years.[2] Wheat, barley, peas, and lentils were important crops, and sheep and goats were domesticated. Sickle blades for harvesting and THE TRANSITION TO AGRICULTURE grinding equipment were definitely in use. During the earlypartofthisperiod,theclimatewaswarmingwith The transition from hunting and gathering to agricul- minor oscillations after the last Ice Age. ture was a gradual one, which occurred over a long Fromhereagriculturespreadsalongthenorthcoast period of time and there still remain groups that have of the Mediterranean to Europe and south to the Nile not adopted this method. The study of these people valley and Mesopotamia. such as the Kung Bushmen in South Africa and the EncyclopediaofPlantandCropScienceDOI:10.1081/E-EPCS-120010412 Copyright#2006byTaylor&Francis.Allrightsreserved. 1 Copyright © 2006 by Taylor & Francis
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