Encyclopedia of Nanotechnology PDF
Preview Encyclopedia of Nanotechnology
Encyclopedia of Nanotechnology Bharat Bhushan Editor Encyclopedia of Nanotechnology With1976Figuresand124Tables Editor ProfessorBharatBhushan OhioEminentScholarand TheHowardD.WinbiglerProfessor, Director,NanoprobeLaboratoryforBio-&Nanotechnology andBiomimetics(NLB2) OhioStateUniversity 201W.19thAvenue Columbus,Ohio,43210-1142 USA ISBN978-90-481-9750-7 ISBN 978-90-481-9751-4(eBook) DOI10.1007/978-90-481-9751-4 ISBN978-90-481-9752-1(printandelectronicbundle) SpringerDordrechtHeidelbergNewYorkLondon LibraryofCongressControlNumber:2012940716 #SpringerScienceþBusinessMediaB.V.2012 Thisworkissubjecttocopyright.AllrightsarereservedbythePublisher,whetherthewholeorpartofthe materialisconcerned,specificallytherightsoftranslation,reprinting,reuseofillustrations,recitation, broadcasting,reproductiononmicrofilmsorinanyotherphysicalway,andtransmissionorinformation storageandretrieval,electronicadaptation,computersoftware,orbysimilarordissimilarmethodology nowknownorhereafterdeveloped.Exemptedfromthislegalreservationarebriefexcerptsinconnection withreviewsorscholarlyanalysisormaterialsuppliedspecificallyforthepurposeofbeingenteredand executed on a computer system, for exclusive use by the purchaser of the work. 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Printedonacid-freepaper SpringerispartofSpringerScienceþBusinessMedia(www.springer.com) Preface On December 29, 1959, at the California Institute of Technology, Nobel Laureate RichardP.FeynmangaveaspeechattheAnnualmeetingoftheAmericanPhysical Societythathasbecomeoneofthetwentieth-centuryclassicsciencelectures,titled “There’s Plenty of Room at the Bottom.” He presented a technological vision of extrememiniaturizationin1959,severalyearsbeforetheword“chip”becamepartof the lexicon. He spoke about the problem ofmanipulating and controlling things on a small scale. Extrapolating from known physical laws, Feynman envisioned a technology using the ultimate toolbox of nature, building nanoobjects atom by atomormoleculebymolecule.Sincethe1980s,manyinventionsanddiscoveriesin thefabricationofnanoobjectshavebeentestamenttohisvision.Inrecognitionofthis reality, National Science and Technology Council (NSTC) of the White House createdtheInteragencyWorkingGrouponNanoscience,EngineeringandTechnol- ogy(IWGN)in1998.InaJanuary2000speechatthesameinstitute,formerPresident W.J.Clintonspokeabouttheexcitingpromiseof“nanotechnology”andtheimpor- tance of expanding research in nanoscale science and technology, more broadly. Laterthatmonth,heannouncedinhisStateoftheUnionAddressanambitious$497 millionfederal,multiagencyNationalNanotechnologyInitiative(NNI)inthefiscal year 2001 budget, and made the NNI a top science and technology priority. The objectiveofthisinitiativewastoformabroad-basedcoalitioninwhichtheacademe, theprivatesector,andlocal,state,andfederalgovernmentsworktogethertopushthe envelope of nanoscience and nanoengineering to reap nanotechnology’s potential socialandeconomicbenefits. ThefundingintheUSAhascontinuedtoincrease.InJanuary2003,theUSsenate introducedabilltoestablishaNationalNanotechnologyProgram.OnDecember3, 2003,PresidentGeorgeW.Bushsignedintolawthe 21stCenturyNanotechnology ResearchandDevelopmentAct.Thelegislationputintolawprogramsandactivities supported by the (NNI). The bill gave nanotechnology a permanent home in the federal government and authorized $3.7 billion to be spent in the 4-year period beginning in October 2005, for nanotechnology initiatives at five federal agencies. Thefundshaveprovidedgrantstoresearchers,coordinatedR&Dacrossfivefederal agencies(NationalScienceFoundation(NSF),DepartmentofEnergy(DOE),NASA, NationalInstituteofStandardsandTechnology(NIST),andEnvironmentalProtec- tion Agency (EPA)), established interdisciplinary research centers, and accelerated technology transfer into the private sector. In addition, the Department of Defense (DOD),HomelandSecurity,AgricultureandJustice,aswellastheNationalInstitutes ofHealth(NIH)alsofundlargeR&Dactivities.Theycurrentlyaccountformorethan one-thirdofthefederalbudgetfornanotechnology. v vi Preface TheEuropeanUnion(EU)madenanosciencesandnanotechnologiesapriorityin the Sixth Framework Program (FP6) in 2002 for the period 2003–2006. They had dedicatedsmallfundsinFP4andFP5before.FP6wastailoredtohelpbetterstructure EuropeanresearchandtocopewiththestrategicobjectivessetoutinLisbonin2000. Japan identified nanotechnology as one of its main research priorities in 2001. The fundinglevelsincreasedsharplyfrom$400millionin2001toaround$950millionin 2004.In2003,SouthKoreaembarkedupona10-yearprogramwitharound$2billion ofpublicfunding,andTaiwanhascommittedaround$600millionofpublicfunding over6years.SingaporeandChinaarealsoinvestingonalargescale.Russiaiswell fundedaswell. Nanotechnology literally means any technology done on a nanoscale that has applicationsintherealworld.Nanotechnologyencompassesproductionandapplica- tionofphysical,chemical,andbiologicalsystemsatscales,rangingfromindividual atomsormoleculestosubmicrondimensions,aswellastheintegrationoftheresulting nanostructures into larger systems. Nanotechnology is likely to have a profound impact on oureconomy andsociety inthe early twenty-first century, comparableto thatofsemiconductortechnology,informationtechnology,orcellularandmolecular biology. Science and technology research in nanotechnology is leading to break- throughs in areas such as materials and manufacturing, nanoelectronics, medicine andhealthcare,energy,biotechnology,informationtechnology,andnationalsecurity. Itiswidelyfeltthatnanotechnologywillbethenextindustrialrevolution. There is an increasing need for a multidisciplinary, system-oriented approach toward designing and manufacturing micro/nanodevices which function reliably. This can only be achieved through the cross-fertilization of ideas from different disciplinesandthesystematicflowofinformationandpeopleamongresearchgroups. Reliabilityisacriticaltechnologyformanymicro-andnanosystemsandnanostruc- turedmaterials.Thefirsteditionofabroad-basedHandbookofNanotechnologyfrom SpringerwaspublishedinApril2004,thesecondeditionin2007,andthethirdedition in 2010. It presents an overview of nanomaterial synthesis, micro/nanofabrication, micro- and nanocomponents and systems, scanning probe microscopy, reliability issues(includingnanotribologyandnanomechanics)fornanotechnology,andvarious industrialincludingbiomedicalapplications. The field of nanotechnology is getting a strong foothold. It attracts people from variousdisciplinesincludingscienceandengineering.Giventheexplosivegrowthin nanoscience and nanotechnology, this Encyclopedia of Nanotechnology is being launchedwithessayswrittenbyexpertsinthefieldfromacademiaandindustry. Theobjectiveofthisencyclopediaistointroducealargenumberofterms,devices, andprocesses.Foreachentry,abriefdescriptionisprovidedbyexpertsinthefield. Theentrieshavebeenwrittenbyalargenumberofinternationallyrecognizedexperts inthefield,fromacademia,nationalresearchlabs,andindustry. TheEncyclopediaofNanotechnologyisexpectedtoprovideacomprehensiveand multidisciplinary reference to the many fields relevant to the general field of nano- technology. The encyclopedia focuses on engineering and applications with some coverage of the science of nanotechnology. It aims to be a comprehensive and genuinelyinternationalreferenceworkandisaimedatgraduatestudents,researchers, andpractitioners. ThedevelopmentoftheencyclopediawasundertakenbyanEditorialBoard,who wereresponsibleforthefocusandqualityofcontributions,andanAdvisoryBoard, whowereresponsibleforadvisingabouttheselectionoftopics. Preface vii The print version of the encyclopedia contains four volumes with a total of 325 entries and about 3068 pages. The encyclopedia is also available online. Editors expect to update it periodically. The editor-in-chief and all the editors thank a large number of authors for making contributions to this major reference work. We also thank the referees who meticulously read the entries and made their recommendations. Powell,Ohio BharatBhushan USA May2012 Biography BharatBhushan OhioEminentScholar TheHowardD.WinbiglerProfessor,Director NanoprobeLaboratoryforBio-&Nanotechnol- ogyandBiomimetics(NLB2) OhioStateUniversity 201W.19thAvenue Columbus,Ohio,43210-1142 USA [email protected] Dr.BharatBhushanreceivedanM.S.inmechanicalengineeringfromtheMassachu- settsInstituteofTechnologyin1971;anM.S.inmechanicsandaPh.D.inmechanical engineering from the University of Colorado at Boulder in 1973 and 1976, respec- tively;anMBAfromRensselaerPolytechnicInstituteatTroy,NY,in1980;aDoctor Technicae from the University of Trondheim at Trondheim, Norway, in 1990; a Doctor of Technical Sciences from the Warsaw University of Technology at Warsaw,Poland, in1996; andDoctor Honouris Causa fromthe National Academy ofSciencesatGomel,Belarus,in2000andUniversityofKragujevac,Serbia,in2011. Heisaregisteredprofessionalengineer.HeispresentlyanOhioEminentScholarand TheHowardD.WinbiglerProfessorintheCollegeofEngineeringandtheDirectorof the Nanoprobe Laboratory for Bio- & Nanotechnology and Biomimetics (NLB2) at the Ohio State University, Columbus, Ohio. His research interests include fun- damentalstudieswithafocusonscanningprobetechniquesintheinterdisciplinary areas of bio/nanotribology, bio/nanomechanics, and bio/nanomaterials characteri- zation and applications to bio/nanotechnology and biomimetics. He is an interna- tionally recognized expert of bio/nanotribology and bio/nanomechanics using scanningprobemicroscopyandisoneofthemostprolificauthors.Heisconsidered by some a pioneer of the tribology and mechanics of magnetic storage devices. Hehasauthored8scientificbooks,approximately90handbookchapters,700sci- entific papers (h-index – 57; ISI Highly Cited in Materials Science, since 2007; ISITop5%CitedAuthorsforJournalsinChemistrysince2011),and60technical reports.Hehasalsoeditedmorethan50booksandholds17USandforeignpatents. He is coeditor of Springer NanoScience and Technology Series and coeditor of MicrosystemTechnologies.Hehasgivenmorethan400invitedpresentationsonsix continents and more than 200 keynote/plenary addresses at major international conferences. ix x Biography Dr. Bhushan is an accomplished organizer. He organized the 1st Symposium on TribologyandMechanicsofMagneticStorageSystemsin1984andthe1stInterna- tional Symposium on Advances in Information Storage Systems in 1990, both of whicharenowheldannually.HeisthefounderofanASMEInformationStorageand ProcessingSystemsDivisionfoundedin1993andservedasthefoundingchairduring theperiod1993–1998.HisbiographyhasbeenlistedinovertwodozenWho’sWho books including Who’s Who in the World and has received more than two dozen awards for his contributions to science and technology from professional societies, industry, and US government agencies. He is also the recipient of various interna- tionalfellowshipsincludingtheAlexandervonHumboldtResearchPrizeforSenior Scientists,MaxPlanckFoundationResearchAwardforOutstandingForeignScien- tists, and the Fulbright Senior Scholar Award. He is a foreign member of the InternationalAcademyofEngineering(Russia),ByelorussianAcademyofEngineer- ingandTechnology,andtheAcademyofTriboengineeringofUkraine;anhonorary memberoftheSocietyofTribologistsofBelarus;afellowofASME,IEEE,STLE, andtheNewYorkAcademyofSciences;andamemberofASEE,SigmaXi,andTau BetaPi. Dr. Bhushan has previously worked for Mechanical Technology Inc., Latham, NY;SKFIndustriesInc.,KingofPrussia,PA;IBM,Tucson,AZ;andIBMAlmaden Research Center, San Jose, CA. He has held visiting professorship at University of CaliforniaatBerkeley;UniversityofCambridge,UK;TechnicalUniversityVienna, Austria;UniversityofParis,Orsay;ETH,Zurich;andEPFL,Lausanne.Heiscurrently a visiting professor at KFUPM, Saudi Arabia; Harbin Inst., China; University of Kragujevac,Serbia,andUniversityofSouthampton,UK.
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