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ENCYCLOPEDIA o f EARTH SCIENCES SERIES E N ME C ENCYCLOPEDIA OF MARINE GEOSCIENCES ENCYCLOPEDIA N A Y C R C Edited by Jan Harff, Martin Meschede, Sven Petersen and Jörn Thiede Y I N L C Globally growing demand of energy and mineral resources, reliable future projection of climate f MARINE GEOSCIENCES processes and the protection of coasts to mitigate the threats of disasters and hazards require a com- EL o O prehensive understanding of the structure, ongoing processes and genesis of the marine geosphere. O G P Beyond the “classical” research fields in marine geology in current time more general concepts have P been evolved integrating marine geophysics, hydrography, marine biology, climatology and ecology. E E As an umbrella the term “marine geosciences” has been broadly accepted for this new complex field E O D of research and the solutions of practical tasks in the marine realm. D S I The “Encyclopedia of Marine Geosciences” comprises the current knowledge in marine geoscienc- CI A A es whereby not only basic but also applied and technical sciences are covered. Through this con- I cept a broad scale of users in the field of marine sciences and techniques is addressed from stu- E dents and scholars in academia to engineers and decision makers in industry and politics. o o N f f The Editors: C Jan Harff is Professor of Geosciences and Seafloor Geology at the University of Szczecin, Poland. His previous research focused E on sedimentary basin analysis at the Central Institute for Physics of the Earth (ZIPE, subsequently the GeoForschungs Zentrum, E GFZ), Potsdam, and marine geology at the Leibniz Institute for Baltic Sea Research Warnemünde and the University of Greifswald, A Germany. He cooperates, on a permanent basis, with marine research institutes of the Chinese Academy of Sciences, Chinese uni- S versities and the Guangzhou Marine Geological Survey, Guangzhou, China. His research interests concern marine geology in gen- R eral, sedimentology, coastal geology, paleoceanography, paleoclimatology, mathematical geology and basin modelling. In addition to having authored and co-authored numerous research papers and having served as editor of other scientific publications, he acted T as corresponding editor of “Modeling of Sedimentary Systems” (Springer, 1999) and “The Baltic Sea Basin” (Springer, 2011). H Martin Meschede is Professor of “Regional and Structural Geology” at the Institute of Geography and Geology, University of Greifswald, Germany. His research interests focus on geodynamic processes at plate margins, subduction, large igneous provinces, a H exhumation, paleogeography, paleoclimatology, basin evolution, and glacial tectonics. He participated in several marine research n S expeditions, among these are the Joides Resolution of IODP and a diving cruise with Shinkai 6500. Besides a number of scientific d a Edited by publications, he is author and coauthor of several textbooks on plate tectonics, structural geology, and regional geology of Germany. r C T f f Sven Petersen is a senior researcher at GEOMAR, Helmholtz Centre for Ocean Research Kiel in Germany. His research focuses h , I M on understanding the processes that form and change seafloor hydrothermal systems and associated mineral deposits with time. He i E e Jan Harff, Martin Meschede participated in more than 30 research cruises to submarine hydrothermal systems in the Pacific, Atlantic, and Indian Ocean. Major d aims of his research are to understand their chemical variability, the use of mobile drilling techniques and geophysical methods to e N e s investigate their sub-seafloor extent as well as the use of autonomous underwater vehicles for their exploration. ( c E h C Jörn Thiede is the leader of the KÖPPEN-Laboratory of the Institute of Earth Sciences of Saint Petersburg State University. He Sven Petersen and Jörn Thiede e worked 1967-1987 at the universities of Aarhus (Denmark), Bergen (Norway), Oregon State University in Corvallis (USA), Oslo d d E (Norway) and Kiel (Germany) and learned to sail the world’s oceans to understand their history. Afterwards he pursued the founda- s e tion of GEOMAR. In 1997 he joined The Alfred Wegener Institute-Helmholtz Centre for Polar and Marine Research. In 2008 he .) , S served at the Geocenter Denmark as well as at UNIS (Longyearbyen/ Svalbard) and in 2011 was invited to join the St. Petersburg P State University (Russia). e S t e E r ISBN 978-94-007-6237-4 s e R n I E ❯springer.com 9 789400 762374 S ENCYCLOPEDIA of MARINE GEOSCIENCES Encyclopedia of Earth Sciences Series ENCYCLOPEDIA OF MARINE GEOSCIENCES Volume Editors JanHarffisProfessorofGeosciencesandSeafloorGeologyattheUniversityofSzczecin,Poland.Hispreviousresearchfocusedonsedimentarybasin analysisattheCentralInstituteforPhysicsoftheEarth(ZIPE,subsequentlytheGeoForschungsZentrum,GFZ),Potsdam,andmarinegeologyatthe LeibnizInstituteforBalticSeaResearchWarnemündeandtheUniversityofGreifswald,Germany.Hecooperates,onapermanentbasis,withmarine researchinstitutesoftheChineseAcademyofSciences,Chineseuniversities,andtheGuangzhouMarineGeologicalSurvey,Guangzhou,China.His researchinterestsconcernmarinegeologyingeneral,sedimentology,coastalgeology,paleooceanography,paleoclimatology,mathematicalgeology,and basinmodeling.Inadditiontohavingauthoredandcoauthorednumerousresearchpapersandhavingservedaseditorofotherscientificpublications,he actedascorrespondingeditorofModelingofSedimentarySystems(Springer,1999)andTheBalticSeaBasin(Springer,2011). Martin Meschede is Professor of Regional and Structural Geology at the Institute of Geography and Geology, University of Greifswald, Germany. His research interests focus on geodynamic processes at plate margins, subduction, large igneous provinces, exhumation, paleogeography,paleoclimatology,basinevolution,andglacialtectonics.Heparticipatedinseveralmarineresearchexpeditions,amongtheseare theJoidesResolutionofIODPandadivingcruisewithShinkai6500.Besidesanumberofscientificpublications,heisauthorandcoauthorof severaltextbooksonplatetectonics,structuralgeology,andregionalgeologyofGermany. SvenPetersenisaseniorresearcheratGEOMAR,HelmholtzCentreforOceanResearchKielinGermany.Hisresearchfocusesonunderstanding theprocessesthatformandchangeseafloorhydrothermalsystemsandassociatedmineraldepositswithtime.Heparticipatedinmorethan30 researchcruisestosubmarinehydrothermalsystemsinthePacific,Atlantic,andIndianOceans.Majoraimsofhisresearcharetounderstandtheir chemicalvariability,theuseofmobiledrillingtechniquesandgeophysicalmethodstoinvestigatetheirsubseafloorextent,aswellastheuseof autonomousunderwatervehiclesfortheirexploration. JörnThiedeistheleaderoftheKÖPPEN-LaboratoryoftheInstituteofEarthSciencesofSaintPetersburgStateUniversity.Heworkedduring 1967–1987attheuniversitiesofAarhus(Denmark),Bergen(Norway),OregonStateUniversityinCorvallis(USA),Oslo(Norway),andKiel (Germany)andlearnedtosailtheworld’soceanstounderstandtheirhistory.Afterward,hepursuedthefoundationofGEOMAR.In1997,he joinedTheAlfredWegenerInstitute-HelmholtzCentreforPolarandMarineResearch.In2008,heservedattheGeocenterDenmarkaswellasat UNIS(Longyearbyen/Svalbard)andin2011wasinvitedtojointheSt.PetersburgStateUniversity(Russia). Editorial Board CarinaB.Lange GerhardBohrmann UniversidaddeConcepción UniversityofBremen Concepción,Chile Bremen,Germany AlexanderP.Lisitzin CharlesW.Finkl ShirshovInstituteofOceanology,RussianAcademyofSciences TheCoastalEducationandResearchFoundation,Inc. Moscow,Russia CoconutCreek,FL,USA and JasonPhippsMorgan FloridaAtlanticUniversity CornellUniversity BocaRaton,FL,USA Ithaca,NY,USA MarkD.Hannington YujiroOgawa UniversityofOttawa Tsukubamirai,Japan Ottawa,ON,Canada and ManikTalwani GEOMARHelmholtzCentreforOceanResearch RiceUniversity Kiel,Germany Houston,TX,USA RolandvonHuene DiZhou GEOMARHelmholtzCentreforOceanResearch SouthChinaSeaInstituteofOceanology,CAS Kiel,Germany Guangzhou,P.R.China Aims of the Series TheEncyclopediaofEarthSciencesSeriesprovidescomprehensiveandauthoritativecoverageofallthemainareasintheEarthSciences.Eachvolume comprisesafocusedandcarefullychosencollectionofcontributionsfromleadingnamesinthesubject,withcopiousillustrationsandreferencelists. Thesebooksrepresentoneoftheworld’sleadingresourcesfortheEarthSciencescommunity.Previousvolumesarebeingupdatedandnewworks publishedsothatthevolumeswillcontinuetobeessentialreadingforallprofessionalearthscientists,geologists,geophysicists,climatologists,and oceanographersaswellasforteachersandstudents.Gotohttp://link.springer.comtovisitthe“EncyclopediaofEarthSciencesSeries”online. About the Series Editor ProfessorCharlesW.Finklhaseditedand/orcontributedtomorethaneightvolumesintheEncyclopediaofEarthSciencesSeries.Forthepast 25years,hehasbeentheExecutiveDirectoroftheCoastalEducationandResearchFoundationandEditor-in-ChiefoftheinternationalJournalof CoastalResearch.Inadditiontotheseduties,heisProfessoratFloridaAtlanticUniversityinBocaRaton,Florida,USA.Heisagraduateofthe UniversityofWesternAustralia(Perth)andpreviouslyworkedforawhollyownedAustraliansubsidiaryoftheInternationalNickelCompanyof Canada(INCO).Duringhiscareer,heacquiredfieldexperienceinAustralia,theCaribbean,SouthAmerica,SWPacificislands,SouthernAfrica, WesternEurope,andthePacificNorthwest,Midwest,andSoutheastUSA. Founding Series Editor ProfessorRhodesW.Fairbridge(deceased)haseditedmorethan24EncyclopediasintheEarthSciencesSeries.Duringhiscareer,hehasworked asapetroleumgeologistintheMiddleEast,beenaWWIIintelligenceofficerintheSWPacific,andledexpeditionstotheSahara,ArcticCanada, ArcticScandinavia,Brazil,andNewGuinea.HewasEmeritusProfessorofGeologyatColumbiaUniversityandwasaffiliatedwiththeGoddard InstituteforSpaceStudies. ENCYCLOPEDIA OF EARTH SCIENCES SERIES ENCYCLOPEDIA of MARINE GEOSCIENCES edited by JAN HARFF University of Szczecin Szczecin, Poland MARTIN MESCHEDE University of Greifswald Greifswald, Germany SVEN PETERSEN GEOMAR Helmholtz Centre for Ocean Research Kiel, Germany JÖRN THIEDE Institute of Earth Science, KÖPPEN-Laboratory Saint Petersburg State University St. Petersburg, Russia LibraryofCongressControlNumber:2015957581 ISBN:978-94-007-6237-4 Thispublicationisavailablealsoas: ElectronicpublicationunderISBN978-94-007-6238-1and PrintandelectronicbundleunderISBN978-94-007-6239-8 SpringerDordrecht,Heidelberg,NewYork,London Printedonacid-freepaper Coverphoto:ThesubmersibleDeepSee,some600feetbelowthesurfaceofthePacific,descendsintoavolcanicventof theseamountLasGemelasnearCostaRica.Photographby:BrianJ.Skerry/NationalGeographicCreative Everyefforthasbeenmadetocontactthecopyrightholdersofthefiguresandtableswhichhavebeenreproduced fromothersources.Anyonewhohasnotbeenproperlycreditedisrequestedtocontactthepublishers,sothatdue acknowledgementmaybemadeinsubsequenteditions. Allrightsreservedforthecontributions:CoastalEngineering;Cobalt-richManganeseCrusts;HydrothermalPlumes; MarineEvaporites;SeaWalls/Revetments;Terranes ©SpringerScience+BusinessMediaDordrecht2016 Thisworkissubjecttocopyright.AllrightsarereservedbythePublisher,whetherthewholeorpartofthematerial isconcerned,specificallytherightsoftranslation,reprinting,reuseofillustrations,recitation,broadcasting, reproductiononmicrofilmsorinanyotherphysicalway,andtransmissionorinformationstorageandretrieval, electronicadaptation,computersoftware,orbysimilarordissimilarmethodologynowknownorhereafterdeveloped. Thepublisher,theauthorsandtheeditorsaresafetoassumethattheadviceandinformationinthisbookarebelievedtobe trueandaccurateatthedateofpublication.Neitherthepublishernortheauthorsortheeditorsgiveawarranty,expressor implied,withrespecttothematerialcontainedhereinorforanyerrorsoromissionsthatmayhavebeenmade. Dedication WededicatetheEncyclopediaofMarineGeosciencestotwoscientists:EugenSeiboldandTerryHealy.EugenSeiboldhas,directly andindirectly,inspiredthefourofusandsupportedourenthusiasmformarinegeosciences.Whileacoauthoroftheentry“Marine Geosciences: A Short, Eclectic, and Weighted Historic Account,” he passed away in 2013 before the Encyclopedia of Marine Geosciences was completed. Terry Healy, a marine scientist from New Zealand, had initiated the Encyclopedia of Marine Geosciencesprojectbeforehepassedawayin2010.Terryinfluencedthegeosciencecommunityworldwidebyhisgroundbreaking researchincoastalerosion,sedimentation,andhazards(includingtsunamis).WhileEugenSeibold’scontributionsrepresentbasic sciences,TerryHealy’saddressappliedaspectsofmarinesciences.Inthissense,thetwoscientistsepitomizeourintentionforthe EncyclopediaofMarineGeosciencestobridgethebasicandtheappliedcompartmentsofmarinegeosciences. Eugen Seibold (May 11, 1918–October 23, 2013) initiated Terry Healy (November 28, 1944–July 20, 2010) was for researchonmarinegeologyattheUniversityofKiel,Germany, decades affiliated to the University of Waikato, New Zealand. with the aim of understanding the fossil depositional environ- His special field of research and academic education was the mentsthroughthestudyandcomparisonofmodernsedimentary innershelfoceanographyandmarinegeology,studiedonscales processes.Herealizedthatmarinegeologywoulddevelopinto from regional to global. Terry Healy’s major contribution a fascinating research discipline. He will be remembered as to marine geosciences involved societal applications of earth oneofthegreatgeoscientistsofourtime;hewasatruemanof scienceprinciples. theEarth. “ThroughoutmyprofessionalcareerIhaveheldtoaphilos- ophyofdemonstratinginmyteachingandresearch,theimpor- tance,relevance,andapplicationofearthscienceprinciplesto theproblemsof,andultimatebenefitto,thecommunity.” Editors and Editorial Board JanHarff GerhardBohrmann InstituteofMarineandCoastalSciences MARUM-CenterforMarineEnvironmentalSciences UniversityofSzczecin UniversityofBremen ul.Mickiewicza18 P.O.Box330440 70-383Szczecin 28334Bremen Poland Germany [email protected] [email protected] MartinMeschede InstituteofGeographyandGeology Ernst-Moritz-ArndtUniversity CharlesW.Finkl Friedrich-Ludwig-Jahn-Str.17A DepartmentofGeosciences 17487Greifswald FloridaAtlanticUniversity Germany 5130NW54thStreet [email protected] BocaRaton33073FL USA and SvenPetersen TheCoastalEducationandResearchFoundation GEOMARHelmholtzCentreforOceanResearch CoconutCreek,FL Wischhofstr.1-3 USA 24148Kiel [email protected] Germany [email protected] JörnThiede MarkD.Hannington InstituteofEarthSciences GEOMARHelmholtzCentreforOceanResearch SaintPetersburgStateUniversity Wischhofstr.1-3 V.O.,Sredniyprospect,41 24148Kiel St.Petersburg199178 Germany Russia and and GoldcorpChairinEconomicGeology AdWMainzc/oGEOMAR DepartmentofEarthSciences Wischhofstr.1-3 UniversityofOttawa 24148Kiel K1N6N5Ottawa,ON Germany Canada [email protected] [email protected] viii EDITORSANDEDITORIALBOARD RolandvonHuene YujiroOgawa GEOMARHelmholtzCentreforOceanResearch 1-127-2-C-740Yokodai Wischhofstraße1-3 Tsukubamirai300-2358 24148Kiel Japan Germany [email protected] [email protected] CarinaB.Lange CentroFONDAP-COPAS UniversidaddeConcepción ManikTalwani Casilla160-C DepartmentofEarthSciences Concepción MS-126RiceUniversity Chile 6100MainStreet [email protected] Houston,TX77005 USA AlexanderP.Lisitzin [email protected] P.P.ShirshovInstituteofOceanology RussianAcademyofSciences(IORAS) Nakhimovskiiprospekt,36 Moscow117851 Russia [email protected] DiZhou SouthChinaSeaInstituteofOceanology JasonPhippsMorgan ChineseAcademyofSciences DepartmentofEarthandAtmosphericScience 164WestXingangRoad CornellUniversity 510301Guangzhou 2122SneeHall China Ithaca,NY14853-1504 [email protected] USA [email protected] Contents Contributors xv Bedforms 55 MiwaYokokawa Preface xxxi Biochronology,Biostratigraphy 55 Acknowledgments xxxiii FelixM.Gradstein AbyssalPlains 1 BiogenicBarium 56 DavidVoelker GrahamShimmield AccretionaryWedges 6 Bioturbation 57 MartinMeschede GerhardGraf ActiveContinentalMargins 9 BlackandWhiteSmokers 58 SergeLallemand MargaretK.Tivey AncientPlateTectonics 13 BottomSimulatingSeismicReflectors(BSR) 62 StephenF.Foley JürgenMienertandStefanBünz AnoxicOceans 20 Bottom-BoundaryLayer 67 ChristianMärzandHans-JürgenBrumsack WenyanZhang AsphaltVolcanism 24 BoumaSequence 68 GerhardBohrmann ThierryMulderandHeikoHüneke AstronomicalFrequenciesinPaleoclimates 25 CalciteCompensationDepth(CCD) 71 Andre´Berger WolfgangH.Berger AxialSummitTroughs 33 CarbonIsotopes 73 SamuelAdamSouleandMichaelR.Perfit ThomasWagnerandJensO.Herrle AxialVolcanicRidges 36 CarbonateDissolution 78 IsobelYeo LeifG.Anderson Beach 41 CarbonateFactories 80 CharlesW.Finkl JohnJ.G.Reijmer BeachProcesses 47 ChemosyntheticLife 84 CharlesW.Finkl VerenaTunnicliffe