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Encyclopedia of Hydrological Sciences Encyclopedia of Hydrological Sciences Encyclopedia of Hydrological Sciences Editor-in-Chief Malcolm G Anderson Departmentof Geography, University of Bristol, Bristol, UK Senior Advisory Editor Jeffrey J McDonnell Departmentof ForestEngineering, OregonState University, Corvallis, OR, US 1 Copyright2005JohnWiley&SonsLtd, TheAtrium, SouthernGate, Chichester, WestSussex, PO198SQ,England Telephone: (+44)1243779777 Email(forordersandcustomerserviceenquiries):[email protected] VisitourHomePageonwww.wiley.com AllRightsReserved.Nopartofthispublicationmaybereproduced,storedinaretrievalsystemor transmittedinanyformorbyanymeans,electronic,mechanical,photocopying,recording,scanningor otherwise,exceptunderthetermsoftheCopyright,DesignsandPatentsAct1988orunderthetermsofa licenceissuedbytheCopyrightLicensingAgencyLtd,90TottenhamCourtRoad,LondonW1T4LP, UK,withoutthepermissioninwritingofthePublisher.RequeststothePublishershouldbeaddressedto thePermissionsDepartment,JohnWiley&SonsLtd,TheAtrium,SouthernGate,Chichester,West SussexPO198SQ,England,[email protected],orfaxedto(+44)1243770620. 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ISBN0-471-49103-9(cased)–ISBN0-470-84894-4(obook) 1. Hydrology–Encyclopedias. I.Anderson,MalcolmG. GB655.E5272005 551.48(cid:1)03–dc22 2005022541 BritishLibraryCataloguinginPublicationData AcataloguerecordforthisbookisavailablefromtheBritishLibrary ISBN10:0-471-49103-9(HB) ISBN13:978-0-471-49103-9 Typesetin91//111/ptTimesRomanbyLaserwordsPrivateLtd.,Chennai,India. 2 2 PrintedandboundinGreatBritainbyBathPress,Bath,UK. Thisbookisprintedonacid-freepaperresponsiblymanufacturedfromsustainableforestryinwhichat leasttwotreesareplantedforeachoneusedforpaperproduction. Editorial Board Editor-in-Chief MalcolmGAnderson Departmentof Geography, University of Bristol, Bristol, United Kingdom SeniorAdvisoryEditor JeffreyJMcDonnell Departmentof Forest Engineering, OregonState University, Corvallis, OR,US AssociateEditors Roni Avissar Diane M McKnight Departmentof Civil andEnvironmental Engineering, Duke Institute for Arctic and Alpine Research(INSTAAR), University, Durham, NC,US University of Colorado, Boulder, CO,US Jacob Bear Arthur E Mynett Departmentof Civil Engineering, Technion-IsraelInstitute WL J Delft Hydraulics S&O, Delft, TheNetherlands of Technology,Haifa, Israel Tim R Oke Keith Beven Department of Geography,University of British Columbia, Hydrology and Fluid Dynamics,Environmental Sciences, Vancouver, BC,Canada University of Lancaster, Lancaster, UK Norman E Peters Gu¨nter Blo¨schl United States Geological Survey,Water Resources Institute of Hydraulics, Hydrology & Water Resources Division, Atlanta, GA, US Management,Vienna University of Technology,Vienna, Austria Martin Sharp Department of Earth & Atmospheric Sciences,University Willem Bouten of Alberta, Edmonton, AB, Canada University of Amsterdam, Physical Geography & Soil Science,Amsterdam,The Netherlands Murugesu Sivapalan Formerly of: Centre for WaterResearch,Department of Ian R Calder Environmental Engineering, University of Western Centrefor Land Use andWater ResourcesResearch, Australia, Perth, Australia & Currently at: Departmentof University of Newcastle,Newcastleupon Tyne,UK Geography, University ofIllinois, Urbana, IL,US John Gash Soroosh Sorooshian ProcessHydrology Division, Centrefor Ecology & SAHRA, Department of Hydrology &Water Resources, Hydrology,Wallingford, UK University of Arizona, Tuscon,AZ, US Walter Graf Des Walling Laboratoire de RecherchesHydrauliques (LRH),EPFL, Erosion andSedimentation, Department ofGeography, Lausanne, Switzerland University of Exeter,Exeter,UK Jeffrey J McDonnell Eric Wood Departmentof Forest Engineering, OregonState Department of Civiland Environmental Engineering, University, Corvallis, OR, US Princeton University, Princeton, NJ,US Contents VOLUME 1 List of Contributors xi 22 Evolutionary Computing in Hydrological Sciences 331 Preface xxv 23 Flood Early Warning Systems for Hydrological (sub) Catchments 349 Abbreviations and Acronyms xxvii 24 Network Distributed Decision Support Systems and the Role of Hydrological Knowledge 365 Part 1: Theory, Organization and Scale 1 Part 3: Meteorology and Climatology 379 1 On the Fundamentals of Hydrological Sciences 3 2 The Hydrologic Cycles and Global Circulation 13 25 Global Energy and Water Balances 381 3 Hydrologic Concepts of Variability and Scale 23 26 Weather Patterns and Weather Types 401 4 Organization and Process 41 27 Storm Systems 413 5 Fundamental Hydrologic Equations 59 28 Clouds and Precipitation 423 6 Principles of Hydrological Measurements 75 29 Atmospheric Boundary-Layer Climates and 7 Methods of Analyzing Variability 95 Interactions with the Land Surface 443 8 Fractals and Similarity Approaches in 30 Topographic Effects on Precipitation 455 Hydrology 123 31 Models of Clouds, Precipitation and Storms 463 9 Statistical Upscaling and Downscaling in 32 Models of Global and Regional Climate 477 Hydrology 135 33 Human Impacts on Weather and Climate 491 10 Concepts of Hydrologic Modeling 155 34 Climate Change – Past, Present and Future 507 11 Upscaling and Downscaling – Dynamic Models 165 Part 4: Hydrometeorology 527 12 Co-evolution of Climate, Soil and Vegetation 177 13 Pattern, Process and Function: Elements of a 35 Rainfall Measurement: Gauges 529 Unified Theory of Hydrology at the Catchment 36 Precipitation Measurement: Gauge Scale 193 Deployment 537 37 Rainfall Trend Analysis: Return Period 547 Part 2: Hydroinformatics 221 38 Fog as a Hydrologic Input 559 39 Surface Radiation Balance 583 14 Hydroinformatics and its Contributions to 40 Evaporation Measurement 589 Hydrology: From Computation to 41 Evaporation Modeling: Potential 603 Communication 223 42 Transpiration 615 15 Digital Elevation Model Analysis and 43 Evaporation of Intercepted Rainfall 627 Geographic Information Systems 239 44 Evaporation from Lakes 635 16 Numerical Flood Simulation 257 45 Actual Evaporation 647 17 Hydrological and Environmental Modeling of Transport Processes in Rivers and Estuaries 271 18 Shallow Water Models with Porosity for Urban VOLUME 2 Flood Modeling 285 19 Data-driven Modeling and Computational Intelligence Methods in Hydrology 293 List of Contributors xi 20 Artificial Neural Network Concepts in Hydrology 307 Preface xxv 21 Rainfall-runoff Modeling Based on Genetic Programming 321 Abbreviations and Acronyms xxvii viii CONTENTS Part 5: Remote Sensing 657 77 Inverse Modeling of Soil Hydraulic Properties 1151 46 Principles of Radiative Transfer 659 78 Models of Water Flow and Solute Transport 47 Sensor Principles and Remote Sensing in the Unsaturated Zone 1171 Techniques 673 79 Assessing Uncertainty Propagation Through 48 Ground-based and Airborne Lidar 697 Physically based Models of Soil Water Flow 49 Estimation of Surface Insolation 713 and Solute Transport 1181 50 Estimation of the Surface Energy Balance 731 51 Spatially Resolved Measurements of Part 7: Erosion and Sedimentation 1197 Evapotranspiration by Lidar 753 52 Estimation of Surface Temperature and Surface 80 Erosion and Sediment Transport by Water on Emissivity 771 Hillslopes 1199 53 Estimation of Surface Freeze–Thaw 81 Erosion Monitoring 1209 States Using Microwave Sensors 783 82 Erosion Prediction and Modeling 1221 54 Estimation of Surface Soil Moisture Using 83 Suspended Sediment Transport – Flocculation Microwave Sensors 799 and Particle Characteristics 1229 55 Estimation of Snow Extent and Snow 84 Floodplain Sedimentation – Methods, Patterns, Properties 811 and Processes: A Review with Examples 56 Estimation of Glaciers and Sea-ice Extent and from the Lower Rhine, the Netherlands 1241 their Properties 831 85 Sediment Yields and Sediment Budgets 1283 57 Land-cover Classification and Change 86 Measuring Sediment Loads, Yields, and Detection 853 Source Tracing 1305 58 Characterizing Forest Canopy Structure and 87 Sediment Yield Prediction and Modeling 1315 Ground Topography Using Lidar 875 88 Reservoir Sedimentation 1327 59 Estimation of Soil Properties Using 89 On the Worldwide Riverine Transport of Hyperspectral VIS/IR Sensors 887 Sediment – Associated Contaminants to the 60 Estimation of River and Water-Body Stage, Ocean 1341 Width and Gradients Using Radar Altimetry, 90 Lake Sediments as Records of Past Interferometric SAR and Laser Altimetry 903 Catchment Response 1359 61 Estimation of River Discharge 919 62 Estimation of Suspended Sediment and Algae in Water Bodies 939 VOLUME 3 63 Estimation of Precipitation Using Ground-based, Active Microwave Sensors 951 64 Satellite-based Estimation of Precipitation List of Contributors xi Using Microwave Sensors 965 65 Estimation of Water Vapor and Clouds Using Preface xxv Microwave Sensors 981 Part 6: Soils 997 Abbreviations and Acronyms xxvii 66 Soil Water Flow at Different Spatial Scales 999 Part 8: Water Quality and Biogeochemistry 1371 67 Hydrology of Swelling Clay Soils 1011 68 Water Movement in Hydrophobic Soils 1027 91 Water Quality 1373 69 Solute Transport in Soil at the Core and Field 92 Water Quality Monitoring 1387 Scale 1041 93 Effects of Human Activities on Water 70 Transpiration and Root Water Uptake 1055 Quality 1409 71 Freezing and Thawing Phenomena in Soils 1069 94 Point and NonPoint Source Pollution 1427 72 Measuring Soil Water Content 1077 95 Acidic Deposition: Sources and Effects 1441 73 Soil Water Potential Measurement 1089 96 Nutrient Cycling 1459 74 Soil Hydraulic Properties 1103 97 Urban Water Quality 1479 75 Determining Soil Hydraulic Properties 1121 98 Pathogens 1493 76 Models for Indirect Estimation of Soil 99 Salinization 1505 Hydraulic Properties 1145 100 Water Quality Modeling 1525 CONTENTS ix Part 9: Ecological and Hydrological Interactions 1533 130 Fuzzy Sets in Rainfall/Runoff Modeling 2007 131 Model Calibration and Uncertainty 101 Ecosystem Processes 1535 Estimation 2015 102 Trophic Dynamics 1557 132 Rainfall-runoff Modeling for Assessing 103 Terrestrial Ecosystems 1575 Impacts of Climate and Land Use Change 2033 104 Satellite-Based Analysis of Ecological 133 Rainfall-runoff Modeling of Ungauged Controls for Land-Surface Evaporation Catchments 2061 Resistance 1589 134 Downward Approach to Hydrological Model 105 Microbial Transport in the Subsurface 1603 Development 2081 106 Groundwater Microbial Communities 1627 107 Natural and Constructed Wetlands 1639 VOLUME 4 108 Lake Ecosystems (Stratification and Seasonal Mixing Processes, Pelagic and Benthic Coupling) 1657 List of Contributors xi 109 Reservoirs 1675 110 Paleolimnology and Paleohydrology 1681 Preface xxv Part 10: Rainfall-runoff Processes 1705 Abbreviations and Acronyms xxvii 111 Rainfall Excess Overland Flow 1707 Part 12: Open-channel Flow 2099 112 Subsurface Stormflow 1719 113 Hyporheic Exchange Flows 1733 135 Open Channel Flow – Introduction 2101 114 Snowmelt Runoff Generation 1741 136 Hydrodynamic Considerations 2105 115 Landscape Element Contributions to Storm 137 Uniform Flow 2111 Runoff 1751 138 Unsteady Flow 2121 116 Isotope Hydrograph Separation of Runoff 139 Numerical Modeling of Unsteady Flows in Sources 1763 Rivers 2129 117 Land Use and Land Cover Effects on Runoff 140 Transport of Sediments 2149 Processes: Urban and Suburban Development 1775 141 Computer Modeling of Overbank Flows 2163 118 Land Use and Land Cover Effects on Runoff 142 Debris Flow 2173 Processes: Agricultural Effects 1805 143 Mountain Streams 2187 119 Land Use and Landcover Effects on Runoff 144 Regulated Lowland Rivers 2199 Processes: Forest Harvesting and Road Construction 1813 Part 13: Groundwater 2213 120 Land Use and Land Cover Effects on Runoff Processes: Fire 1831 145 Groundwater as an Element in the 121 Intersite Comparisons of Rainfall-runoff Hydrological Cycle 2215 Processes 1839 146 Aquifer Recharge 2229 147 Characterization of Porous and Fractured Part 11: Rainfall-runoff Modeling 1855 Media 2247 148 Aquifer Characterization by Geophysical 122 Rainfall-runoff Modeling: Introduction 1857 Methods 2265 123 Rainfall-runoff Models for Real-time 149 Hydrodynamics of Groundwater 2285 Forecasting 1869 150 Unsaturated Zone Flow Processes 2299 124 Flood Routing and Inundation Prediction 1897 151 Hydraulics of Wells and Well Testing 2323 125 Rainfall-runoff Modeling for Flood Frequency 152 Modeling Solute Transport Phenomena 2341 Estimation 1923 153 Groundwater Pollution and Remediation 2355 126 Modeling Recession Curves and Low 154 Stochastic Modeling of Flow and Transport Streamflows 1955 in Porous and Fractured Media 2367 127 Rainfall-runoff Modeling: Distributed Models 1967 155 Numerical Models of Groundwater Flow and 128 Rainfall-runoff modeling: Transfer Function Transport 2401 Models 1985 156 Inverse Methods for Parameter Estimations 2415 129 Rainfall-runoff Modeling for Integrated Basin 157 Sea Water Intrusion Into Coastal Aquifers 2431 Management 2001 158 Anthropogenic Land Subsidence 2443 x CONTENTS Part 14: Snow and Glacier Hydrology 2461 180 Short-Term Predictions (Weather Forecasting Purposes) 2791 159 Snow Cover 2463 181 Long-Term Predictions (Climate Simulation 160 Energy Balance and Thermophysical and Analysis) 2813 Processes in Snowpacks 2475 182 The Hydrological Cycle in Atmospheric 161 Water Flow Through Snow and Firn 2491 Reanalysis 2831 183 Teleconnections in the Earth System 2849 162 Hydrology of Snowcovered Basins 2505 184 Global River Carbon Biogeochemistry 2863 163 Hydrochemical Processes in Snow-covered Basins 2525 Part 16: Land Use and Water Management 2877 164 Role of Glaciers and Ice Sheets in Climate and the Global Water Cycle 2539 185 Integrated Land and Water Resources 165 Mass and Energy Balances of Glaciers and Management 2879 Ice Sheets 2555 186 Water and Forests 2895 166 Surface and Englacial Drainage of Glaciers 187 Land Use Impacts on Water Resources – and Ice Sheets 2575 Science, Social and Political Factors 2911 167 Subglacial Drainage 2587 188 Land Use and Water Quality 2925 168 Hydrology of Glacierized Basins 2601 189 Land Use and Water Resources Under a 169 Sediment and Solute Transport in Glacial Changing Climate 2931 Meltwater Streams 2633 190 Hydromorphological Quality – 170 Modeling Glacier Hydrology 2647 A Policy Template for Channel Design in 171 River-Ice Hydrology 2657 River Restoration 2939 172 Permafrost Hydrology 2679 191 Environmental Flows: Managing Hydrological Environments 2953 192 Public Participation in River Basin Planning VOLUME 5 and Management: Quality-of-Life Capital as an Information Aid to Sustainable Decisions 2973 193 Markets for Watershed Services 2987 List of Contributors xi 194 Inter-Institutional Links in Land and Water Management 3003 Preface xxv Part 17: Climate Change 3013 Abbreviations and Acronyms xxvii 195 Acceleration of the Global Hydrologic Cycle 3015 196 The Role of Water Vapor and Clouds in the Part 15: Global Hydrology 2695 Climate System 3029 197 Observed Trends in Hydrologic Cycle 173 Global Water Cycle (Fundamental, Theory, Components 3035 198 Role and Importance of Cryospheric Processes Mechanisms) 2697 in Climate System 3045 174 Global Water Budgets – Fundamental Theory 199 Role and Importance of Paleohydrology in the and Mechanisms 2713 Study of Climate Change and Variability 3051 175 Observations of the Global Water Cycle – 200 Changes in Regional Hydroclimatology and Global Monitoring Networks 2719 Water Resources on Seasonal to Interannual 176 Observations of the Global Water Cycle – and Decade-to-Century Timescales 3073 Satellites 2733 201 Land-Atmosphere Models for Water and 177 The Role of Large-Scale Field Experiments Energy Cycle Studies 3089 in Water and Energy Balance Studies 2753 202 Use of Climate Information in Water 178 Modeling of the Global Water Cycle: Resources Management 3103 Numerical Models (General Circulation 203 A Guide to International Hydrologic Science Models) 2761 Programs 3119 179 Modeling of the Global Water Cycle – Analytical Models 2777 Subject Index 3145 Contributors Michael B Abbott Bruce Aylward Knowledge Engineering B.V. Belgium and UNESCO-IHE Deschutes Water Exchange Program, Deschutes Resources Delft, Delft, TheNetherlands Conservancy,Bend, OR, US Richard G Allen Vladan Babovic Department of Civil Engineering and Department of Bio- DHIWater&Environment,AgernAlle,Ho/rsholm,Denmark logical and Agricultural Engineering, University of Idaho, Kimberly,ID, US Darren L Bade Center for Limnology, University of Wisconsin, Madison, William M Alley WI, US United States Geological Survey, Office of Ground Water, San Diego,CA, US Andy Baker School of Geography, Earth and Environmental Sciences, The University ofBirmingham, Birmingham, UK Doug Alsdorf Department of Geological Sciences, Ohio State University, Columbus, OH, US Lawrence E Band University of NorthCarolina, ChapelHill, NC,US Mustafa S Altinakar Andra´s Ba´rdossy Laboratoire de Recherches Hydrauliques, Ecole Polytech- nique Fe´de´rale, Lausanne, Switzerland Universita¨tStuttgart,Institutfu¨rWasserbau,Stuttgart(Vai- hingen), Germany Jaime M Amezaga Luis A Bastidas Centre for Land Use and Water Resources Research, Insti- tute for Research on the Environment and Sustainability, Department of Civil and Environmental Engineering/Utah University of Newcastle,Newcastleupon Tyne,UK Water Research Laboratory, Utah State University, Logan, UT, US Ulf Andrae Paul D Bates ResearchDepartment,EuropeanCentreforMedium-Range School of Geographical Sciences, University of Bristol, WeatherForecasts, Reading, UK Bristol, UK George W Annandale Jacob Bear Engineering andHydrosystemsInc.,Denver,CO,US DepartmentofCivilandEnvironmentalEngineering,Tech- nion – IsraelInstitute of Technology,Haifa, Israel Aronne Armanini Department of Civil and Environmental Engineering, Uni- Roger Beckie versity of Trento,Trento,Italy Department of Earth and Ocean Sciences, University of British Columbia, Vancouver,BC, Canada Geoffrey L Austin Department of Physics, The University of Auckland, Auck- Anton Beljaars land, NewZealand ResearchDepartment,EuropeanCentreforMedium-Range Weather Forecasts, Reading, UK Roni Avissar Department of Civil and Environmental Engineering, Duke Kenneth E Bencala University, Durham, NC,US United States Geological Survey,MenloPark, CA, US