Encyclopedia Of European People (2 volume set)

984 Pages·2006·18.87 MB·English

by  Carl Waldman

Encyclopedia of
European Peoples
NO
Carl Waldman and
Catherine Mason
For Gina Sikelianos . . .
honoring her European spirit.
—Carl Waldman
NO
For Carole Mihalko, first-generation Lithuanian-American,
who spent many years in the South Pacific as an educator and whose
joy in life and laughter were a joyous contagion. Passed away on
July 5, 2004, after more than a decade fighting cancer.
—Cathy Mason
Encyclopedia of European Peoples
Copyright © 2006 by Carl Waldman and Catherine Mason
Drawings copyright © 2006 by Patti Erway
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Library of Congress Cataloging-in-Publication Data
Waldman, Carl, 1947–
Encyclopedia of European peoples / Carl Waldman and Catherine Mason.
p. cm.
Includes bibliographical references and index.
ISBN 0-8160-4964-5
1. Ethnology—Europe—Encyclopedias 2. Europe—Social life and customs—
Encyclopedias. I. Mason, Catherine, 1950– II. Title.
D1056.W35 2006
305.8'0094—dc22 2005040153
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Contents
7
List of Entries iv
List of Illustrations and Maps vii
Preface xi
How to Use This Set xiii
Acknowledgments xv
Entries A to Z 1
Appendix I: European Peoples with Entries in This Book
with Alternate Names and Groupings 877
Appendix II: European Peoples Organized by Primary Ancestral
Language Family, Nationalities, or Regions 883
Appendix III: The Languages of Europe, Past and Present 887
Appendix IV: The Geography of Europe 890
Appendix V: Hominids, the Earliest Europeans 893
Appendix VI: Individuals Mentioned in Text through the Nineteenth
Century, with Birth and Death Dates, Organized by Peoples 900
Appendix VII: List of Individuals Featured in Biographical Sidebars,
Organized Alphabetically 920
Appendix VIII: Chronology of European Prehistory and History 921
Glossary of Cultural Terms 943
Bibliography 952
List of entries
7
Abazians Astures Brigantes Cenomani
Abricantes Atacini Brigantini Ceretani
Achaeans Atrebates British: nationality Ceutrones
Adriani Attacotti Britons Chamavi
Aduatuci Aulerci Bructeri Chatti
Aducinates Aurunci Bruttii Chattuarii
Aedui Ausci Bulgarians: nationality Chauci
Aeolians Austrians: nationality Bulgars Chechens
Aequi Auteri Burgundii Cherusci
Aestii Avars Buzhanians Chorvati
Agessinates Baiocasses Byzantines Chuvash
Aigosages Balkars Cadurci Cimbri
Alamanni Balts Caerenii Cimmerians
Alans Bashkirs Caerosi Circassians
Albanians: nationality Basques Caledones Cocosates
Albici Bastarnae Caledonians Coenicenses
Allobroges Bastetani Caleti Conderates
Ambarri Bastuli Cambolectri Condrusi
Ambialates Batavi Campani Consoranni
Ambiani Bavarians Cangi Convenae
Ambibarii Bavarii Cantabri Coriondi
Ambidravi
Belarusians: nationality Cantiaci Corionototae
Ambivariti
Belegezites Carantanians Coriosolites
Amsivarii
Belendi Carnonacae Coritani
Anagnutes
Belgae Carnutes Cornish
Anares
Belgians: nationality Carpenati Cornovii
Anartes
Belli Carpetani Cossacks
Ancalites
Bellovaci Carpi Costobocii
Andecamulenses
Bercorates Carthaginians Creones
Andecavi
Berones Carvetii Croats
Andis
Bibroci Cassi Croats: nationality
Andorrans: nationality
Bigerriones Catalanians Cumans
Angles
Bituriges Catalauni Curonians
Anglo-Saxons
Bodiotonci Caturiges Cycladites
Antes
Bohemians Catuvellauni Cypriots: nationality
Aorsi
Boii Caucasians Czechs
Apuli
Boikos Cauci Czechs: nationality
Aquitani
Boresti Cavares Dacians
Arecomici
Borussians Celtae Dál Fiatach
Arevaci
Bosnians and Celtiberians Dalmatians
Arvanites
Herzegovinians: nationality Celtici Dál Riata
Arverni
Brannovices Celts Damnonii
Arviens
Bretons Cenimagni Danes: nationality
Aspiates
iv
List of Entries v
Dani Gauls Kipchaks Mediomatrici
Dardani Geiduni Komi Medulli
Dargwas Gepids Kosovars Meldi
Decantae Germanics Krivichians Meminii
Deceangli Germans: nationality Kumyks Memmates
Deciates Getae Kuyavians Menapii
Demetae Golaseccans Kvens Merya
Diablintes Goplanians Lactorates Meshchera
Didos Goths Ladins Messapi
Dobunni Graioceli Laks Minoans
Dorians Greeks Latins Moesians
Dregovichians Greeks: nationality Latovici Moldovans: nationality
Drevlyans Grudii Latvians: nationality Monacans: nationality
Duklianes Havelians Laudani Monaig
Dulebians Helvetii Ledzianians Mongols
Dumnonii Helvii Lemkos Montenegrins
Durocasses Herminones Lemovices Moors
Durotriges Hermunduri Leponti Moravians
Dutch: nationality Hernici Letts Mordvins
Eblani Heruli Leuci Morini
Eburones Hessians Lexovii Muroma
Eburovices Horvatians Lezgians Mycenaeans
Eleuteti Hungarians: nationality Libici Nadruvians
Elusates Huns Liechtensteiners: nationality Nagnatae
Elymi Hutsuls Liganiens Namnetes
English Iapyges Ligurians Nantuates
Enotri Iazyges Lingones Naristi
Epidi Iberians Lithuanians Nemetes
Eravisci Icelanders: nationality Lithuanians: nationality Nenets
Ernaigh Iceni Livs Nerusi
Essues Ilergetes Lobetani Nervii
Esths Illyrians Lombards Nitiobriges
Estonians: nationality Ilmen Slavs Lopocares Nogay
Esuvii Ingaevones Lucani Nori
Etruscans Ingrians Lugadii Normans
Faliscans Ingush Lugi Norwegians: nationality
Finno-Ugrians Insubres Lugii Novantae
Finns Ionians Lusitani Novioduni
Finns: nationality Irish Lusones Obodrites
Flemings Irish: nationality Luxembourgers: nationality Olcades
Franks Istaevones Macedonians Onesi
French: nationality Italians: nationality Macedonians: nationality Opici
Frentani Italics Maeatae Ordovices
Frisians Iuthungi Magyars Oretani
Friulians Iverni Maltanese: nationality Oscidates
Gaballi Izhorians Mandubii Osismi
Gaesati Jews Manx Ossets
Gagauz Jutes Marci Ostrogoths
Galatoi Kalmyks Marcomanni Oxybii
Galicians Karachay Mari Paeligni
Gallaeci Karaim Marrucini Paemani
Galli Karelians Marsi Palmiensi
Gangani Kashubes Mattiacians Pannonians
Garites Kazakhs Mazovians Parisii
Garumni Khazars Mazurs Pechenegs
vi Encyclopedia of European Peoples
Pelasgians Saracens Swedes: nationality Unelli
Pelendones Sardinians Swiss: nationality Usdiae
Petrocorii Sardones Taexali Usipetes
Peuceti Sarmatians Taifali Vaccaei
Phoenicians Saxons Tarasconiens Vacomagi
Picenes Scandinavians Tarbelli Vadicasses
Pictones Sciri Tartessians Vandals
Picts Sclaveni Tarusates Vangiones
Pleumoxii Scordisci Tatars Varini
Podilians Scots Taurisci Vasates
Polabians Scythians Tectosages Vascones
Polanians Sea Peoples Tectoverdi Vediantii
Poles Seduni Tencteri Veletians
Poles: nationality Segontiaci Teutones Veliocasses
Polianians Segovellauni Thracians Vellabori
Polochanians Segusiavi Thuringi Vellavii
Pomaks Selgovae Tigurini Venedi
Pomeranians Selonians Titti Veneti
Portuguese: nationality Semigallians Tivertsians Venetians
Praetutii Semnones Tolistobogii Venetii
Preciani Senones Tolosates Venicones
Prussians Sequani Torks Veps
Quadi Serbs Tornates Veragi
Quariates Serbs and Montenegrins: Tornedalians Verodunenses
Radimichians nationality Toutones Verturiones
Raeti Setantii Treveri Vestini
Ranians Severians Triboci Vettones
Raurici Sexovii Tricassi Viducasses
Regni Sibusates Tricastins Vikings
Remi Sicani Tricorii Villanovans
Rhedones Sicilians Trinovantes Vindelici
Robogdi Siculi Trocmi Vinderii
Romanians: nationality Sidicini Tubanti Viromandui
Romans Silesians Tulingi Visigoths
Roxolani Silures Tungri Vistulans
Rroma Silvanecti Turboletas Vlachs
Rugii Siraces Turdetani Vocontii
Rus Skalvians Turduli Volcae
Russians: nationality Slavs Turkics Volhynians
Rusyns Slovaks Turkmens Volsci
Ruteni Slovaks: nationality Turks: nationality Votadini
Ruthenes Slovenes Turmogi Votes
Saami Slovenes: nationality Turones Vyatichans
Sabines Slovienie Uaithne Wagrians
Salasses Saliensienses Smertae Uberi Walachians
Salii Sorbs Ubii Walloons
Saluvii Sotiates Ubyks Walsers
Salyens Spanish: nationality Uceni Welsh
Samnages Suebi Udmurts Wends
Samnites Suessiones Ukrainians: nationality Wolinians
Samogitians Suetri Ulaid Yotvingians
San Marinians: nationality Sugambri Ulichians
Santones Svear Umbrians
list of illustrations
and maps
7
Two Albanian boys in traditional clothing, 1923.. . . . . . 17 Stone relief shows Celtiberian warrior carrying
a Celtic shield and Iberian sword.. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 140
Two Albanian shepherd boys playing nose flutes,
1923.. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 17 Bronze figure from western Austria,
probably sculpted by a Celtic people. . . . . . . . . . . . . 146
Tomb of Saxon king Sebert and queen Athelgoda.. . . . . 27
Celtic helmet, first century B.C.E... . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 154
Gold coin used by the Arverni.. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 40
Golden votive offering made by a Celtic craftsperson.. . 160
Austrians searching for food in Vienna,
early 20th century.. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 42 Cossack soldiers astride their horses,
late 19th century.. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 183
Bashkir woman in front of her house, 1910.. . . . . . . . . . 56
Two Croats posing for a photograph, 1855. . . . . . . . . . 187
1617 painting showing Belgian family.. . . . . . . . . . . . . . 68
Late 19th-century facade of the cathedral at Sˇibenik,
Bosnian peasants congregate, late 19th century.. . . . . . . 72
Croatia.. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 189
Two women walking in Brittany, early 20th century.. . . 78
Idol from the Cycladites found in Amorgos,
Celtic iron and bronze linchpin, 2500–1100 B.C.E... . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 193
early first century C.E... . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 91
People crossing the Charles Bridge in Prague,
1895 print showing Julius Caesar leading Romans to Czechoslovakia, late 19th century. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 201
Britain in 55 B.C.E. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 92
Danes in a courtyard in Nyborg, Denmark,
Queen Boudicca of the Iceni, from a late 19th or early 20th century.. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 212
19th-century painting.. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 94
Etching showing a seated Dutchman holding
Bulgarian girl herding sheep, late 19th or a shovel, late 19th century. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 220
early 20th century. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 103
Dutch boy standing in front of a windmill,
Philip the Bold, duke of Burgundy (1342–1404), early 20th century.. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 221
and his wife, Margaret of Flanders (1350–1405).. . . 112
Queen Elizabeth I of England, 16th century. . . . . . . . . 230
Cemberlistas Obelisk, column of masonry erected by
Shakespeare performing before Queen Elizabeth I
Constantine the Great, 330 C.E.. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 114
and her court.. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 235
Female figure representing Rome, carved by
Etruscan bronze votive figure, fourth century B.C.E.. . . 242
Byzantines, late fifth century C.E. .. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 116
Etruscan warrior in bronze, c. 300 B.C.E... . . . . . . . . . . 245
Female figure representing Constantinople,
carved by Byzantines, late fifth century C.E. . . . . . . . 116 Sixteenth-century representation of Clovis I,
king of the Franks.. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 270
Carthaginian coin, late fifth century B.C.E. . . . . . . . . . . 132
1833 painting of Joan of Arc. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 280
Caucasian man smoking his pipe,
late 19th century.. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 137 Louis XIV of France, 1699.. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 281
vii
viii Encyclopedia of European Peoples
Napoleon I of France, 1814. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 281 Irish woman smoking a dudheen, early 20th century.. . 447
Statue of a male warrior crafted by Gauls in southern Neapolitan peasants milking a goat, 1869.. . . . . . . . . . 449
France, late first century B.C.E.. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 288
Seal crafted by ancient Jews.. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 462
Bronze plaque crafted by Gauls in northern France,
Ashkenazim (German Jews), 1876.. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 463
first century C.E.. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 292
Scene from Latvian city of Riga. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 481
Germanic bronze helmet plate, sixth or
seventh century C.E... . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 323 Lithuanian woman mending a fishing net,
late 19th century. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 492
Germanic medallion, sixth century C.E... . . . . . . . . . . . 324
Gold stater showing Alexander the Great,
19th century painting of Martin Luther burning
mid-fourth century B.C.E. .. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 503
the papal edict in Wittenberg, 1517.. . . . . . . . . . . . . 327
1898 painting of Alexander the Great consulting
Portrait of Martin Luther. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 328
the Delphian Oracle. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 504
German men and women cutting rye near Schwarza,
Macedonian family, 1900. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 507
Germany, early 20th century.. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 334
Maltese woman hanging laundry, 1940s. . . . . . . . . . . . 512
1584 print of Greek scholar Strabo holding a
globe of the world.. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 351 Celtic coin.. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 520
Minoan vase shaped as a bull’s head,
Bust of Pericles.. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 353
c. 1550 to 500 B.C.E.. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 523
Ruins of the Parthenon in Athens. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 358
Linear A tablet produced by Minoans, c. 1450 B.C.E. . . 523
Terra-cotta relief of the Greeks, 460 B.C.E... . . . . . . . . . 363
Linear B tablet produced by Mycenaeans on Crete,
Silver stater, depicting Pegasus, used by Greeks c. 1400 B.C.E... . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 523
in about 550 C.E... . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 363
Minoan beaked clay jug from Phaestos,
Ancient Greek architecture: Temple of Theseus; c. 1850 to 1700 B.C.E. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 525
Temple of Segesta in Sicily; view of ancient Athens;
Moldovans shopping at a fruit-and-vegetable stand,
Tower of the Winds; western front of the Parthenon;
Kishinev, Moldova, 1940s.. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 526
Choragian monument of Lysicrates. . . . . . . . . . . . . . 364
Slavs in rowboats netting fish in Montenegro,
Ruins of the theater at Delphi in Greece. . . . . . . . . . . . 370
early 20th century.. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 532
Print of Ptolemy of Alexandria.. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 374
Moorish couple seated at home, c. 1876. . . . . . . . . . . . 536
Phidias’s statue of Athena and other Greek and
“Mask of Agamemnon,” gold funerary mask,
Roman sculptures. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 375
16th century B.C.E. .. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 541
Greek women harvest tea, early 20th century.. . . . . . . 386
Mycenaean terra-cotta figurine,
One artist’s conception of Attila the Hun.. . . . . . . . . . . 395 14th or 13th century B.C.E... . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 547
Iberian torc (neck ring), possibly 1732 portrait of William the Conqueror. . . . . . . . . . . . 562
early fourth century B.C.E.. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 404 Norman Gate, Windsor Castle, in New Windsor,
Small silver cup used by Iberians of Portugal, Berkshire, England. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 563
third to first century B.C.E. .. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 405 Norwegians standing atop Pulpit Rock near Stavanger
at Norway’s Lyse Fjord, early 20th century. . . . . . . . 569
Icelanders walking along a street in Reykjavík, 1938.. . 410
Celtic coin.. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 411 Cloak pin used by Ostrogoths, fifth century C.E... . . . . 574
Illyrian warrior depicted in bronze situla from Gold stater used by the Parisii, first century B.C.E. .. . . 580
Slovenia, seventh or sixth century B.C.E. . . . . . . . . . 413 Sword chape, type of metal trimming,
used by the Picts.. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 595
Gold boat model crafted by the Irish,
first century B.C.E... . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 423 Stone carving of a Pict on horseback,
eastern Scotland. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 596
1872 lithograph showing St. Patrick taming serpents. . . 441
European leaders partitioning Poland, 18th century.. . 602
Irish man and woman in front of their house,
early 20th century.. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 447 Polish family, early 20th century. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 603
List of Illustrations and Maps ix
Portuguese ship captain, 1865.. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 609 Serbian boy fiddles on the streets of Belgrade at
Christmastime, 1918.. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 729
Celtic coin.. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 616
Pagan obelisk constructed by the Slavs. . . . . . . . . . . . . 749
Romanian woman and child standing by a
farmyard fence, early 20th century.. . . . . . . . . . . . . . 619 Playing cards from the 1920s representing historical
figures of Bohemian history. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 753
Romanian man and woman posing in traditional-style
costumes of their Saxon ancestors. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 620 Slavic people hauling flour in an ox-drawn cart,
early 20th century.. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 757
Sculpture of Romulus and Remus and a she-wolf.. . . . 625
Slovenian woman poses in traditional clothing,
Roman scenes.. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 635
1897.. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 774
19th century representation of Julius Caesar.. . . . . . . . 636
Charles V, king of Spain and Holy Roman Emperor. . . 779
Arch of Hadrian, built by Athenians in 131 C.E.. . . . . . 639
Spaniards stand on a beach with fishing boats,
1829 drawing of the Roman emperor Trajan late 19th century.. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 782
hunting wild boar.. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 641
Swedes plant crops on a farm near Jönköping,
Pope Gregory in his vestments.. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 643 Sweden, early 20th century.. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 787
Roman guard depicted in detail of a relief carving. . . . 650 Scenic view of the Swiss Alps.. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 792
Late 19th-century photograph of the exterior of the Swiss standing by a boat on the shore of Lake Brienz
Colosseum in Rome. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 651 in Switzerland, late 19th century. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 793
Two Rroma women, late 19th century.. . . . . . . . . . . . . 662
Tatars repairing a road in the Crimea, 1895. . . . . . . . . 796
Rroma mother sits with her baby on a roadside near
Murad (Amurath) IV, sultan of the Turks,
Orsova, Hungary, early 20th century. . . . . . . . . . . . . 663
17th century. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 807
Four Rroma stand near a domesticated bear,
Ukrainian women farming, early 20th century. . . . . . . 816
probably in Bulgaria, 1930s. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 664
Ukrainian woman posing on her farm,
Church in St. Petersburg, Russia, named after
early 20th century. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 817
Vladimir I (St. Vladimir).. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 672
Plaque in whale bone carved by Vikings. . . . . . . . . . . . 835
Portrait of young Peter the Great of Russia. . . . . . . . . . 675
Hogback crafted by Vikings, mid-10th century C.E... . . 837
Portrait of Catherine the Great of Russia.. . . . . . . . . . . 678
1893 photograph of a replica Viking drakkar,
Priest of the Russian Orthodox Church, outside the
or dragon ship.. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 838
Verkhoturskii Monastery in Russia, 1910.. . . . . . . . . 679
Rook, one of the so-called Lewis Chessmen,
Three Russian women offer berries to visitors near
crafted in Norway out of walrus ivory. . . . . . . . . . . . 839
the Sheksna River. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 680
1819 print of Welsh women washing clothes. . . . . . . . 865
Detail of a frieze showing Samnites,
fourth century B.C.E.. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 687
LIST OF MAPS
Archer, possibly Sarmatian, c. 6500 B.C.E.. . . . . . . . . . . 694
Migrations of Germanic Peoples to the British Isles
King Egbert of West Saxons with his coat of arms
above a warrior and map of Britain, 1645. . . . . . . . . 696 in the fifth century C.E.. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 24
Core lands of the Avar khanate in the seventh
Bronze collar of the Scots, first or second century C.E... . 702
century C.E. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 47
Monymusk reliquary used by Scots,
Locations of some Baltic-speaking peoples in the
eighth century C.E. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 703
ninth to twelfth centuries C.E.. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 51
Five women in stovepipe hats, Scotland, about 1860. . . 710
Basque lands. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 58
Two children dance in Scotland, early 20th century. . . 710
Some tribal groupings of Britons in
Leopard crafted by Scythians, seventh to
the first century C.E. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 90
sixth century B.C.E.. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 724
Extent of Bulgar lands in the eighth and
Bronze figure of an archer from the island of Sardinia,
ninth centuries C.E.. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 107
possibly a warrior of the Sea Peoples, ninth to
seventh century B.C.E... . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 725 Byzantine Empire under Justinian, 527–565 C.E.. . . . . 114