Encyclopedia of Entomology

4409 Pages·2008·114.986 MB·English

by  George Hangay (auth.), John L. Capinera (eds.)

Encyclopedia of Entomology
Encyclopedia of Entomology
Edited by
John L. Capinera
University of Florida
Second Edition
Volume 1
A–C
Professor John L. Capinera
Dept. Entomology and Nematology
University of Florida
Gainesville FL 32611–0620
USA
Library of Congress Control Number: 2008930112
ISBN: 978-1-4020-6242-1
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Editorial Board
Cyrus Abivardi Eugene J. Gerberg
Swiss Federal Institute of Technnoloy University of Florida
Donald R. Barnard Donald W. Hall
United States Department of Agriculture University of Florida
Jean-Luc Boevé Marjorie A. Hoy
Royal Belgian Institute of Natural Sciences University of Florida
Drion Boucias John B. Heppner
University of Florida Florida State Collection of Arthropods
Paul. M. Choate Pauline O. Lawrence
University of Florida University of Florida
Whitney Cranshaw Heather J. McAuslane
Colorado State University University of Florida
Thomas C. Emmel James L. Nation
University of Florida University of Florida
J. Howard Frank Herb Oberlander
University of Florida United States Department of Agriculture
Severiano F. Gayubo Frank B. Peairs
Universidad de Salamanca Colorado State University

Acknowledgments
This project is the labor of many people, including some who labored diligently behind the scenes.
Among those to whom I am greatly indebted for their ‘behind-the-scenes’ assistance are Pam Howell and
Carole Girimont (first edition) and Pam Howell (second edition) for document processing and editing
assistance; Mike Sanford, Pat Hope, and Jane Medley (first edition) and Hope Johnson (second edition)
for assistance with the images, and Marsha Capinera for compiling the list of contributors. Ron Cave,
Andrei Sourakov, and Lyle Buss helped greatly by supplying numerous photographs for the second
edition.
Howard Frank deserves special mention for his editing acumen and assistance. Drion Boucias con-
tributed the lengthy unattributed sections on insect pathology. The unattributed biographic sketches
with last names beginning with A to J were contributed by Howard Frank. All other unattributed
sections were contributed by John Capinera.

Preface
Some biologists have called this the ‘Age of Insects.’ Among animals, certainly the diversity of insects is
unrivaled. Nearly one million species have been described to date, and some entomologists estimate that
as the tropics are fully explored, we will find that there are actually more than three million insect spe-
cies. The large number of insects is often attributed to the divergence of plants (angiosperms), which
provide numerous hosts and places to feed, but if plant feeders are excluded from the tabulation the
biodiversity of insects remains unrivaled. Virtually every environment has been exploited by these resil-
ient organisms. Even if one dislikes insects, they are impossible to ignore, and a little knowledge about
them could be indispensable should one have a ‘close encounter’ of an unpleasant kind.
Insects are remarkable biological organisms. They are small enough to escape the detailed scrutiny
of most people, but I have yet to meet anyone whom, once provided the opportunity to examine insects
closely (through a microscope) is not completely amazed by the detail and complexity of these exqui-
sitely designed (by natural selection) beasties. They are fascinating in function as well as form. Insects are
the only invertebrates to fly, they are disproportionately strong, and their ecological adaptability defies
belief. For example, some insects produce their own version of anti-freeze, which allows them to be fro-
zen solid yet to regain normal function upon thawing. Their sensory abilities are beyond human com-
prehension; a male insect can sometimes locate a female by her ‘perfume’ (pheromone) from several
kilometers distance. Although not normally considered intelligent, insects display surprisingly complex
behaviors, and altruistic social systems that could well serve as models for human societies.
Insects and their close relatives are important for many reasons besides their sheer diversity. Their
effect on humans is profound. Insects are our chief competitor for food and fiber resources throughout
the world. Annual crop losses of 10 to 15% are attributed to insects, with both pre-harvest and post-
harvest losses considerably more at times. Insects also are the principal vector of many human, animal,
and plant diseases, including viruses, mollicutes, bacteria, fungi, and nematodes. The ability to transmit
diseases magnifies their effect, and makes it more difficult to manage injury. Over the course of human
history, insect-transmitted disease has caused untold human suffering. For example, introduction of
flea-transmitted bubonic plague to Europe centuries ago killed millions of people and caused severe
disruption to western civilization. Though less dramatic, mosquito-transmitted malaria kills thousands
annually throughout the world, and unlike plague, which is now mostly a historical footnote, the toll
continues to mount.
Advances in technology, particularly the introduction of chemical insecticides, have done much to
remove the threat of insect-related damage from the consciousness of most humans. Insecticides are
applied preventatively to avoid pre- and post-harvest damage to crops, to our dwellings, and to our land-
scape. This is an oft-overlooked but remarkable achievement that has increased stability in the supply
and price of resources, and in the lives of resource producers. No longer are people faced with starvation
or economic ruin due to the ravages of insects; in almost all parts of the world, the ready availability of
insecticides can be used to prevent massive insect population outbreaks. However, we realize increas-
ingly that this approach is not without its own set of health, environmental and economic costs, and
alleviating dependency on insecticides, or making alternatives to insecticides more readily available, has
assumed greater priority.
x Preface
We are faced with an interesting dichotomy. There is a wealth of information about insects, but it is
known mostly to ‘insect scientists’ (entomologists). The public (non-entomologists or 99.99% of all peo-
ple) has little knowledge about insects, and poor access to vital information about these important
organisms. So this encyclopedia is presented to bridge the gap – to better enable those with a need to
know to find fundamental information provided by more than 450 experts in the field of entomology.
We provide a broad overview of insects and their close relatives, including taxonomy, behavior, ecology,
physiology, history, and management. Importantly, we provide critical links to the entomological litera-
ture, much of which presently is unavailable for search electronically. The contributors are distinguished
entomologists from around the world. They hope that the availability of this encyclopedia will help oth-
ers to reap the benefits of centuries of discovery, and to discover the wonders that make the study of
insects so compelling. It was constructed with college and university students in mind, but others may
find it a handy reference.
John L. Capinera, Gainesville (Florida) April, 2008
Highlights of the Encyclopedia of
Entomology
Major Taxa of Insects and Their Stoneflies (Plecoptera)
Near Relatives Stylopids (Strepsiptera)
Symphylans (Symphyla)
Alderflies and Dobsonflies (Megaloptera) Termites (Isoptera)
Angel Insects (Zoraptera) Thrips (Thysanoptera)
Bark-Lice, Book-Lice, or Psocids (Psocoptera) Ticks (Ixodida)
Beetles (Coleoptera) Wasps, Ants, Bees, and Sawflies (Hymenoptera)
Bristletails (Archeognatha) Webspinners (Embiidina)
Bugs (Hemiptera)
Butterflies and Moths (Lepidoptera)
Other Groups
Caddisflies (Trichoptera)
Centipedes (Chilopoda)
Chewing and Sucking Lice (Phthiraptera) Anagrus Fairyflies (Hymenoptera: Mymaridae)
Cockroaches (Blattodea) Ants (Hymenoptera: Formicidae)
Diplurans (Diplura) Aphids (Hemiptera: Aphididae)
Dragonflies and Damselflies (Odonata) Apoid Wasps (Hymenoptera: Apoidea:
Earwigs (Dermaptera) Spheciformes)
Fleas (Siphonaptera) Argasid (Soft) Ticks (Acari: Ixodida: Argasidae)
Flies (Diptera) Assassin Bugs, Kissing Bugs and Others
Gladiators (Mantophasmatodea) (Hemiptera: Reduviidae)
Grasshoppers, Katydids, and Crickets Bark Beetles, Dendroctonus spp. (Coleoptera:
(Orthoptera) Curculionidae: Scolytinae)
Lacewings, Antlions, and Mantispids Bees (Hymenoptera: Apoidea: Apiformes)
(Neuroptera) Bess Beetles (Coleoptera: Passalidae)
Mayflies (Ephemeroptera) Biting Midges, Culicoides (Diptera:
Millipedes (Diplopoda) Ceratopogonidae)
Mites (Acari) Black Flies (Diptera: Simuliidae)
Pillbugs and Sowbugs, or Woodlice (Isopoda) Blister Beetles (Coleoptera: Meloidae)
Praying Mantids (Mantodea) Bulb Mites, Rhizoglyphus (Acari: Acaridae)
Proturans (Protura) Burnet Moth Biology (Lepidoptera:
Rock Crawlers (Grylloblattodea) Zygaenidae)
Scorpionflies (Mecoptera) Brush-Footed Butterflies (Lepidoptera:
Scorpions (Scorpiones) Nymphalidae)
Sea Spiders (Pycnogonida) Butterflies (Lepidoptera: Rhopalocera)
Silverfish (Zygentoma) Carpenter Bees (Hymenoptera: Apidae:
Snakeflies (Raphidioptera) Xylocopinae)
Spiders (Araneae) Carrion Beetles (Coleoptera: Silphidae)
Springtails (Collembola) Cicadas (Hemiptera: Cicadoidea)
Stick and Leaf Insects (Phasmida) Clearwing Moths (Lepidoptera: Sesiidae)