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PREFACE The history of human culture can be viewed as the The study of energy has played a pivotal role in progressive development of new energy sources and understandingthecreationoftheuniverse,theorigin their associated conversion technologies. Advances of life, the evolution of human civilization and in our understanding of energy have produced culture, economic growth and the rise of living unparalleled transformations of society, as exempli- standards, war and geopolitics, and significant fied by James Watt’s steam engine and the discovery environmental change at local, regional, and global of oil. These transformations increased the ability of scales. humans to exploit both additional energy and other The unique importance of energy among natural resources, and hence to increase the comfort, long- resources makes information about all aspects of its evity, and affluence of humans, as well as their attributes, formation, distribution, extraction, and numbers. Energy is related to human development use an extremely valuable commodity. The Encyclo- in three important ways: as a motor of economic pedia of Energy is designed to deliver this informa- growth,asaprincipalsourceofenvironmentalstress, tion in a clear and comprehensive fashion. It uses an andasaprerequisiteformeetingbasichumanneeds. integrated approach that emphasizes not only the Significantchangesineachoftheseaspectsofhuman importance of the concept in individual disciplines existence are associated with changes in energy suchasphysicsandsociology,butalsohowenergyis sources, beginning with the discovery of fire, the used to bridge seemingly disparate fields, such as advent of agriculture and animal husbandry, and, ecology and economics. As such, this Encyclopedia ultimately, the development of hydrocarbon and provides the first comprehensive, organized body of nuclear fuels. The eventual economic depletion of knowledgeforwhatiscertaintocontinueasamajor fossil fuels will drive another major energy transi- area of scientific study in the 21st century. It is tion; geopolitical forces and environmental impera- designed to appeal to a wide audience including tivessuchasclimatechangemaydrivethistransition undergraduate and graduate students, teachers, faster than hydrocarbon depletion would have by academics, and research scientists who study energy, itself. There is a diverse palette of alternatives to as well as business corporations, professional firms, meetourenergyneeds,includinganewgenerationof government agencies, foundations, and other groups nuclear power, unconventional sources of hydrocar- whose activities relate to energy. bons,myriadsolartechnologies,hydrogen,andmore Comprehensive and interdisciplinary are two efficient energy end use. Each alternative has a words I use to describe the Encyclopedia. It has the different combination of economic, political, tech- comprehensive coverage one would expect: forms nological, social, and environmental attributes. of energy, thermodynamics, electricity generation, Energyisthecommonlinkbetweenthelivingand climate change, energy storage, energy sources, the non-living realms of the universe, and thus provides demandforenergy,andsoon.Whatmakesthiswork an organizing intellectual theme for diverse disci- unique,however,isitsbreadthofcoverage,including plines. Formalization of the concept of energy and insights from history, society, anthropology, public identification of the laws governing its use by 19th policy,internationalrelations,humanandecosystem centuryphysicalscientistssuchasMayerandCarnot health, economics, technology, physics, geology, are cornerstones of modern science and engineering. ecology, business management, environmental xxxi xxxii Preface science, and engineering. The coverage and integra- asanuncannycombinationofvision,enthusiasm,and tion of the social sciences is a unique feature. energyfortheproject.IoweChrisagreatdealforhis The interdisciplinary approach is employed in the insightandprofessionalism.Ispentcountlesshourson treatmentofimportantsubjects.Inthecaseofoil,as thephonewithRobertMatsumura,whowastheglue one example, there are entries on the history of oil, that held the project together. Chris and Robert were the history of OPEC, the history of oil prices, oil ably assisted by outstanding Academic Press/Elsevier price volatility, the formation of oil and gas, the staff,especiallyNickPanissidi,JoannaDinsmore,and distribution of oil resources, oil exploration and Mike Early. Clare Marl and her team put together a drilling, offshore oil, occupational hazards in the oil highly effective and creative marketing plan. industry,oilrefining,energypolicyintheoilindustry, At the next stage, the Editorial Board was the geopolitics of oil, oil spills, oil transportation, invaluable in shaping the coverage and identifying public lands and oil development, social impacts of authors. The Board is an outstanding collection of oil and gas development, gasoline additives and scholars from the natural, social, and engineering public health, and the environmental impact of the sciences who are recognized leaders in their fields of Persian Gulf War. Other subjects are treated in a research.Theyhelpedassembleanequallyimpressive similar way. group of authors from every discipline and who This has been a massive and extremely satisfying represent universities, government agencies, national effort. As with any work of this scale, many people laboratories, consulting firms, think tanks, corpora- have contributed at every step of the process, tions, and nongovernmental organizations. I am including the staff of Academic Press/Elsevier. The especially proud of the international scope of the project began through the encouragement of Frank authors: more than 400 authors from 40 nations are Cynar and David Packer, with Frank helping to represented from every continent and every stage of successfully launch the initiative. Henri van Dorssen development.Toallofthese,Iextendmythanksand skillfully guided the project through its completion. congratulations. Hewas especiallyhelpful with integratingthe project formulation, production, and marketing aspects of Cutler Cleveland the project. Chris Morris was with the project Boston University throughout, and displayed what I can only describe Boston, Massachusetts, United States FOREWORD Energy generation and use are strongly linked to all projected carbon emissions to levels below the elements of sustainable development: economic, present. social, and environmental. The history of human Dependence on imported fuels leaves many development rests on the availability and use of countries vulnerable to disruption in supply, which energy, the transformation from the early use of fire might pose physical hardships and economic bur- andanimalpowerthatimprovedlives,tothepresent dens;theweightoffossilfuelimportsonthebalance world with use of electricity and clean fuels for a of payments is unbearable for many poorer coun- multitude of purposes. This progress built on basic tries. The present energy system of countries heavily scientific discoveries, such as electromagnetism and dependent on fossil fuels geographically concen- theinventionsoftechnologiessuchassteamengines, trated in a few regions of the world adds security light bulbs, and automobiles. of supply aspects. It is thus abundantly clear that access to afford- From the issues indicated here it is clear that able energy is fundamental to human activities, major changes are required in energy system devel- development, and economic growth. Without access opmentworldwide.Atafirstglance,thereappearsto to electricity and clean fuels, people’s opportunities be many conflicting objectives. For example, is it are significantly constrained. However, it is really possible to sustain poverty alleviation and economic energy services, not energy per se that matters. Yet, growth while reducing GHG emissions? Can urban today some 2 billion people lack access to modern areas and transport expand while improving air energy carriers. quality? What would be the preferable trade-offs? In addition to the great benefits, the generation, Finding ways to expand energy services while transportation, and use of energy carriers unfortu- simultaneously addressing the environmental im- nately come with undesired effects. The environ- pacts associated with energy use represents a critical mental impacts are multifaceted and serious, challenge to humanity. althoughmostlylessevident.Emissionsofsuspended What are the options? Looking at physical fine particles and precursors of acid deposition resources, one finds they are abundant. Fossil fuels contribute to local and regional air pollution and will be able to provide the energy carriers that the ecosystem degradation. Human health is threatened world is used to for hundreds of years. Renewable by high levels of air pollution resulting from energy flows on Earth are many thousands of times particular types of energy use at the household, larger than flows through energy markets. Therefore, community, and regional levels. there are no apparent constraints from a resource Emissions of anthropogenic greenhouse gases point of view. However, the challenge is how to use (GHG), mostly from the production and use theseresourcesinanenvironmentallyacceptableway. of energy, are altering the atmosphere in ways The broad categories of options for using energy in that are affecting the climate. There is new and ways that support sustainable development are (1) stronger evidence that most of the global warming moreefficientuseofenergyinallsectors,especiallyat observed over the last 50 years is attributable the point of end use, (2) increased use of renewable to human activities. Stabilization of GHG in the energy sources, and (3) accelerated development and atmosphere will require a major reduction in the deploymentofnewandadvancedenergytechnologies, xxvii xxviii Foreword including next-generation fossil fuel technologies that protect important public benefits, including the produce near-zero harmful emissions. Technologies following: are available in these areas to meet the challenges of (cid:1) Cost-based prices, including phasing out all sustainable development. In addition, innovation forms of permanent subsidies for conven- provides increasing opportunities. tional energy (now on the order of $250 Analysis using energy scenarios indicates that it is billion a year) and internalizing external indeed possible to simultaneously address the sus- environmental and health costs and benefits tainable development objectives using the available (nowsometimeslargerthantheprivatecosts). natural resources and technical options presented. A (cid:1) Removing obstacles and providing incentives, prerequisite for achieving energy futures compatible as needed, to encourage greater energy with sustainable development objectives is finding efficiency and the development and/or diffu- ways to accelerate progress for new technologies sion of new technologies for energy for along the energy innovation chain, including re- sustainable development to wider markets. search and development, demonstration, deploy- (cid:1) RecentpowerfailuresontheNorthAmerican ment, and diffusion. Eastern Seaboard, in California, London It is significant that there already exist combina- (United Kingdom), Sweden, and Italy illus- tions of technologies that meet all sustainable tratethestrongdependenceonreliablepower development challenges at the same time. This will networks. Power sector reform that recog- make it easier to act locally to address pollution nizes the unique character of electricity, and problemsofamajorcityorcountrywhileatthesame avoids power crises as seen in recent years, is time mitigating climate change. Policies for energy needed. forsustainabledevelopmentcanbelargelymotivated (cid:1) Reversing the trend of declining Official Devel- by national concerns and will not have to rely only opment Assistance and Foreign Direct Investments, on global pressures. especially as related to energy for sustainable However, with present policies and conditions in development. the marketplaces that determine energy generation and use such desired energy futures will not happen. This is a long list of opportunities and challenges. Aprerequisiteforsustainabledevelopment ischange To move sufficiently in the direction of sustain- in policies affecting energy for sustainable develop- ability will require actions by the public and the ment. This brings a need to focus on the policy private sector, as well as other stakeholders, at situationandunderstandincentivesanddisincentives thenational,regional,andgloballevels.Thedecisive related to options for options for energy for issuesarenottechnologyornaturalresourcescarcity, sustainable development. buttheinstitutions,rules,financingmechanisms,and Policies and actions to promote energy for regulationsneededtomakemarketsworkinsupport sustainable development would include the follow- of energy for sustainable development. A number of ing: countries, including Spain, Germany, and Brazil, as wellassomestatesintheUnitedStateshaveadopted (cid:1) Developing capacity among all stakeholders in successful laws and regulations designed to increase all countries, especially in the public sector, to the use of renewable energy sources. Some regions, address issues related to energy for sustainable including Latin America and the European Union, development. have set targets for increased use of renewable (cid:1) Adopting policies and mechanisms to increase energy. However, much remains to be done. access to energy services through modern fuels and Energy was indeed one of the most intensely electricity for the 2 billion without. debated issues at the United Nations World Summit (cid:1) Advancing innovation, with balanced emphasis on Sustainable Development (WSSD), held in Johan- on all steps of the innovation chain: research and nesburg,South Africa, in August/September, 2002. In development, demonstrations, cost buy-down, and the end, agreement was reached on a text that wide dissemination. significantly advances the attention given to energy (cid:1) Setting appropriate market framework condi- in the context of sustainable development. This was tions (including continued market reform, consistent in fact the first time agreements could be reached regulatory measures, and targeted policies) to en- on energy at the world level! These develop- couragecompetitivenessinenergymarkets,toreduce ments followed years of efforts to focus on energy total cost of energy services to end-users, and to as an instrument for sustainable development that xxix Foreword intensified after the United Nations Conference on energy, a total of 39 partnerships were presented to Environment and Development in 1992. theUnitedNationsSecretariatforWSSDtopromote The United Nations General Assembly adopted programs on energy forsustainable development, 23 theMillenniumDevelopmentGoals(MDG)in2000. with energy as a central focus and 16 with a These goals are set in areas such as extreme considerable impact on energy. These partnerships poverty and hunger, universal primary education, includedmostprominentlytheDESA-ledCleanFuels gender equality and empowerment of women, and Transport Initiative, the UNDP/World Bank-led child mortality, maternal health, HIV/AIDS, malaria Global Village Energy Partnership (GVEP), the and other diseases, and environmental sustain- Johannesburg Renewable Energy Coalition (JREC), ability. However, more than 2 billion people cannot the EU Partnership on Energy for Poverty Eradica- access affordable energy services, based on the tion and Sustainable Development, and the UNEP- efficient use of gaseous and liquid fuels and led Global Network on Energy for Sustainable electricity. This constrains their opportunities for Development (GNESD). economic development and improved living stan- With secure access to affordable and clean energy dards.Womenandchildrensufferdisproportionately being so fundamental to sustainable development, because of their relative dependence on traditional the publication of the Encyclopedia of Energy is fuels. Although no explicit goal on energy was extremely timely and significant. Academics, profes- adopted, access to energy services is a prerequisite sionals, scholars, politicians, students, and many to achieving all of the MDGs. more will benefit tremendously from the easy access Some governments and corporations have already to knowledge, experience, and insights that are demonstrated that policies and measures to promote provided here. energy solutions conducive to sustainable develop- ment can work, and indeed work very well. The Thomas B. Johansson renewedfocusandbroadagreementsonenergyinthe Professor and Director JohannesburgPlanofImplementationandatthe18th International Institute for WorldEnergyCongressarepromising.Theformation Industrial Environmental Economics ofmanypartnershipsonenergybetweenstakeholders Lund University at WSSD is another encouraging sign. A sustainable Lund, Sweden future in which energy plays a major positive role in supporting human well-being is possible! Former Director Progressisbeingmadeonmanyfrontsinbringing Energy and Atmosphere Programme new technologies to the market, and to widening United Nations Development Programme access to modern forms of energy. In relation to New York, United States Acid Deposition and Energy Use A JAN WILLEM ERISMAN EnergyResearch Centre of theNetherlands Petten, TheNetherlands pollutant Any substance in the wrong place at the wrong 1. Introduction time is a pollutant. Atmospheric pollution may be definedasthepresenceofsubstancesintheatmosphere, 2. Acid Deposition,ItsEffects, andCriticalLoads resulting from man-made activities or from natural 3. Processes inthe CausalChain:Emission,Transport, processes, causing effects to manandthe environment. andDeposition 4. Emissions from EnergyUse 5. Abatement andTrendsinEmission Acid deposition originates largely from man-made 6. Acid Deposition emissions of three gases: sulfur dioxide (SO ), 7. Benefits and Recovery ofEcosystems 2 nitrogen oxides (NO ), and ammonia (NH ). It 8. FutureAbatement x 3 damages acid-sensitive freshwater systems, forests, 9. Conclusion soils, and natural ecosystems in large areas of Europe, the United States, and Asia. Effects include defoliation and reduced vitality of trees; declining fish stocks and decreasing diversity of other aquatic Glossary animals in acid-sensitive lakes, rivers, and streams; acid deposition The removal of acidic or acidifying and changes in soil chemistry. Cultural heritage is componentsfromtheatmospherebyprecipitation(rain, also damaged, such as limestone and marble build- cloud droplets, fog, snow, or hail); also known as acid ings, monuments, and stained-glass windows. De- rainoracid precipitation. position of nitrogen compounds also causes acidification The generation of more hydrogen ions (Hþ) eutrophication effects in terrestrial and marine thanhydroxideions(OH(cid:2))sothatthepHbecomesless ecosystems. The combination of acidification and than7. eutrophication increases the acidification effects. criticallevel Themaximumpollutantconcentrationapart Energy contributes approximately 82, 59, and of the environment can be exposed to without 0.1% to the global emissions of SO , NO , and significantharmfuleffects. 2 x NH , respectively. Measures to reduce acid deposi- critical load The maximum amount of pollutant deposi- 3 tion have led to controls of emissions in the United tion a part of the environment can tolerate without significantharmfuleffects. States and Europe. Sulfur emissions were reduced deposition Can be either wet or dry. In dry deposition, 18% between 1990 and 1998 in the United States material is removed from the atmosphere by contact and 41% in Europe during the same period. At the with a surface. In wet deposition, material is removed sametime,emissionsinAsiaincreased43%.Inareas fromthe atmosphere byprecipitation. of the world in which emissions have decreased, the emissions Thereleaseofprimarypollutantsdirectlytothe effectshavedecreased;mostnotably,lakeacidityhas atmosphere by processes such as combustion and also decreased due to a decrease in sulfur emissions, bynatural processes. resulting in lower sulfate and acid concentrations. eutrophication An increase of the amount of nutrients in However,systemswithalongresponsetimehavenot waters orsoils. seen improvement yet and very limited recovery has nitrification Theconversionofammoniumions(NHþ)to 4 nitrate (NO(cid:2)). also been observed. Emissions should therefore be 3 nonlinearity The observed nonlinear relationship between further reduced and sustainable levels should be reductions in primary emissions and in pollutant maintained to decrease the effects and to see deposition. recovery. This will require drastic changes in our EncyclopediaofEnergy,Volume1.r2004ElsevierInc.Allrightsreserved. 1 2 AcidDepositionandEnergyUse energy consumption and the switch to sustainable 400 16000 energy sources. Before renewable energy sources can Primary energy consumption, EJ fzseteauihenmnmlrovdfioieuislr-.sllNeodiTomnaOnhmiblssexaesebrinmeogetmnecaodalisofsputonsiasimsceeorsotinptslihsatonf.-icufestfeWsowfslesuuhiacclrmetrlhienvreuenesassateutdwrabldgtraewyrtyieiinansmniysgsdeepeedtlwdtcoehrsmiaea,trthaetetsndhteStuhdeseOceidifeun2f.sesCTeaSraemOOhnnoide22stf y consumption and share 332211505050000000 PESSlhoheapacrurteerliassc t ioitooyffn gPP, eEEmnCCeil l roicaoiotln iaoalnn (,d% T g)Wash (%) 111864420000000000000000000opulation and electricitygeneration (TWh) NOx emissions, an energy penalty compensates for nerg 50 2000 P the emission reductions. E 0 0 1880 1900 1920 1940 1960 1980 2000 2020 Year 1. INTRODUCTION FIGURE1 Theworldwideuseoffossilfuelsinmillionsoftons peryear.AdaptedfromSmil(2000). The alarm regarding the increasing acidification of precipitation in Europe and eastern North America was first sounded in the 1960s. Since then, most attention has focused on acid rain’s effects, estab- sources has increased and has become higher than lishedandsuspected,onlakesandstreams,withtheir the share of coal. populations of aquatic life, and on forests, although Thefirstenvironmentalconsequencesoftheuseof the list of concerns is far broader: It includes fossilfuelsweretheproblemsofsmokeinhousesand contamination of groundwater, corrosion of man- urban air quality. Human health was affected by the made structures, and, recently, deterioration of useofcoalwithhighsulfurcontent,producingsulfur coastal waters. dioxide and carbon monoxide. The history of Theprocessesthatconvertthegasesintoacidand London clearly shows the ever-increasing problems wash them from the atmosphere began operating related to coal use and the struggle to abate this long before humans started to burn large quantities pollution, culminating in the famous London smog of fossil fuels. Sulfur and nitrogen compounds are in1952,fromwhichthousandsofpeopledied.Inthe also released by natural processes such as volcanism 1950sand1960s,airpollutionbecameanimportant and the activity of soil bacteria. However, human issue but was mainly considered on the local scale. economicactivityhasmadethereactionsvastlymore One of the abatement options was to increase the important. They are triggered by sunlight and stack height in order to take advantage of atmo- depend on the atmosphere’s abundant supply of spheric dispersion, leading to dilution of pollutant oxygen and water. concentrations before humans could be exposed. Wood was the first source for energy production. Thisformedthebasisofthetransboundarynatureof Wood was used for the preparation of food and for acid deposition as we know it today and increased heating.Afterthediscoveryoffossilfuelsintheform thescalefromlocaltoregionalandevencontinental. of coal as a source of energy, it was used for heating The use of fossil fuels increased, and the pollutants purposes. During the industrial revolution, coal, were transported to remote areas, which had very followedbycrudeoilandlaternaturalgas,provided clean air until that time. alargesourceofenergythatstimulatedtechnological Acid rain was first recognized as a serious development,resultinginthereplacementofanimals environmental problem by Robert Angus Smith, an and people in the production of goods, increased alkali inspector based in Manchester. He started a possibilities for mobility, and the enabling of monitoring network with approximately 12 sites at industries to process raw materials into a large which rainfall was collected and analyzed. In 1852, variety of products. When the possibilities of energy hewroteaboutthecorrelationbetweencoalburning production and use became apparent, the use of and acid pollution in and around the industrial fossil fuels grew exponentially. Figure 1 provides an centerofManchester.Heidentifiedthreetypesofair: overview of the worldwide use of fossil fuels since ‘‘that with carbonate of ammonia in the fields at a 1900.Itshowsthatthetotalglobalenergyconsump- distance y that with sulphate of ammonia in the tion is closely linked to the growth of the world’s suburbs, y and that with sulphuric acid, or acid population. The share of oil and gas as energy sulphate,inthetown.’’In1872,hewrotethefamous 3 AcidDepositionandEnergyUse book, Air and Rain: The Beginnings of a Chemical damage in forests. Trees showed decreased foliage Climatology. He referred to the acidity of rain and or needles, and this damage even progressed to the air and its effect on humans and buildings. This was point that trees would die, a phenomenon that the beginning of acidification research, although this happenedintheborderareaofformerEastGermany, was recognized only much later. Poland, and former Czechoslovakia. This tree die- Aciddepositionisoneoftheoldesttransboundary back was also attributed to acidification of the soil. environmental problems. Several components and However, exposure to increased oxidant concentra- thus emission sources contribute to acid deposition, tionswasdeterminedtobeanothercause.Inthemid- making it a complex problem and difficult to abate. 1980s, nitrogen deposition to terrestrial and aquatic Itisoneofthemoststudiedenvironmentalproblems ecosystems was found to cause negative effects and there is a large body of literature. This article through eutrophication. Acidification and eutrophi- givesanoverviewofthestateofknowledgeofenergy cation are both caused by atmospheric deposition of production and use and acid deposition. First, an pollutants,andthecombinationincreasestheeffects, overview is given of acid deposition, the conse- causing too high nutrient concentrations in soil and quences of acid deposition, and the processes groundwater. Nitrate and ammonium are beneficial, involved. The contribution of energy is discussed evenessential,forvegetationgrowth,butintoohigh next, and an estimate of the progress made to concentration they lead to the loss of diversity, decrease the emissions from energy sources is given. especiallyinoligotrophicecosystems(i.e.,ecosystems Finally, future options to decrease acid deposition adapted to low nutrient availability). This problem and the options for decreasing energy emissions are has mainly been encountered in central and north- discussed. western Europe. The effects of acid deposition include changes in terrestrial and aquatic ecosystems showing acidifica- tion of soils, shifts in plant community composition, 2. ACID DEPOSITION, ITS EFFECTS, loss of species diversity, forest damage, water AND CRITICAL LOADS acidification and loss of fish populations, reduction in growth yield of sensitive agricultural crops, and Acid deposition is the deposition of air pollutants to damage to cultural heritage and to building materi- ecosystems leading to acidification and eutrophica- als. The common factor for all these effects is that tion,whichcausenegativeeffectsintheseecosystems. pollutants, or their precursors, are emitted, trans- The components contributing to acid deposition are ported in the atmosphere, and deposited by way of sulfur compounds (SO and SO ), oxidized nitrogen precipitation(wetdeposition)orasgasesorparticles 2 4 compounds (NO, NO , HNO , HNO , and NO ), (dry deposition). In some cases, acid deposition 2 2 3 3 and reduced nitrogen compounds (NH and NH ). occurs 1000km or more from where the responsible 3 4 Some rain is naturally acidic because of the carbon emissions were generated. dioxide (CO ) in air that dissolves with rain water Ifdepositionexceedssustainablelevels,effectscan 2 and forms a weak acid. This kind of acid is actually occurdependingonthedurationoftheexposureand beneficialbecauseithelpsdissolvemineralsinthesoil the level of exceedance. Sustainable levels can be that both plants and animals need. Ammonia acts as represented by critical loads and critical levels. The a base in the atmosphere, neutralizing nitric and critical load is formally defined by the United sulfuricacid,butinsoilammoniaitcanbeconverted NationsEconomicCommissionforEurope(UNECE) by microorganisms to nitric acid, producing addi- as ‘‘a quantitative estimate of exposure to one or tional acid in the process. more pollutants below which significant harmful The first sign of the effects of acid deposition was effects on sensitive elements of the environment do the loss of fish populations in Canadian, Scandina- not occur according to present knowledge.’’ This vian, and U.S. lakes in the early 1960s. It was found definition can be applied to a wide range of thatthewaterinthelakeswasacidifiedtoapointat phenomena and not merely acid rain. Any process whichfisheggsnolongerproducedyoungspecimens. in which damage will occur if depositions exceed This was caused by acid deposition; precipitation natural sink processes has a critical load set by had introduced so much acid in the lakes that pH those sink processes. The concept of critical loads or levels had declined below the critical limit for egg levels has been used to provide a scientific basis for hatching.Afewyearslater,reportsfromCanada,the the incorporation of environmental impacts in the United States, and Germany indicated unusual developmentofnationalandinternationalpoliciesto 4 AcidDepositionandEnergyUse control transboundary air pollutants, within the contain sulfur compounds, which are emitted into framework of the UNECE Convention on the the atmosphere as SO after combustion. Oxidized 2 ControlofTransboundaryAirPollution.Theconcept nitrogen has several sources but is formed mainly by isbasedontheprecautionaryprinciple:Criticalloads combustion processes in which fuel N is oxidized or andlevelsaresettopreventanylong-termdamageto atmospheric N is oxidized at high temperatures. 2 themostsensitiveknownelementsofanyecosystem. These processes are relevant for industries, traffic, The critical loads approach is an example of an and energy production. Among the other sources of effects-based approach to pollution control, which oxidized nitrogen, soils are most important. Ammo- considers that the impact of deposited material niaismainlyemittedfromagriculturalsources.Fossil depends on where it lands. Similar industrial plants fuels seem less important for ammonia than for the may have different pollution impacts depending on other two pollutants. Through the use of fertilizer, thedifferentcapacitiesofthereceivingenvironments which is produced from natural gas, there is a link to absorb, buffer, or tolerate pollutant loads. The withenergy.Indirectly,theincreasedenergyusefrom policy goal with effects-based strategies is ultimately fossil fuels to produce fertilizer has increased nitro- to ensure that the abatement on emissions from all gen emissions from agriculture and contributed to plants is adequate so that no absorptive capacities, acidification. Energy use first increased mobility. nor air quality standards, are exceeded. Food is therefore not necessarily produced in the area where it is consumed. Furthermore, relatively cheap nutrient resources (animal feed) are trans- 3. PROCESSES IN THE CAUSAL portedfromonecontinenttoanother,wheretheyare concentrated in intensive livestock breeding areas. CHAIN: EMISSION, TRANSPORT, Also, fossil fuels, first in the form of coal but now AND DEPOSITION mainlyfromnaturalgas,providethebasistoproduce fertilizers, which are used to produce the food The causal chain represents the sequence of emis- necessary to feed the ever-growing population sions into the atmosphere, transport and chemical throughout the world and to fulfill the need for the reactions,depositiontotheearthsurface,andcycling growing demands for more luxurious food. within the ecosystems until eventually the compo- Base cations play an important role because they nents are fixed or transformed in a form having no can neutralize acids in the atmosphere and the soil, effects.ThiscausalchainisshowninFig.2.Afterthe limiting the effect of acid deposition. On the other causal chain is understood and parameterized in hand, base cations contribute to the particle concen- models, it can be used to assess the possibilities for trations in the atmosphere, affecting human health reducing the effects. when inhaled. Sources of base cations are energy production, agricultural practices, and road dust. 3.1 Emission 3.2 Transport and Deposition Theuseoffossilfuelsforenergyproductionisoneof the main causes of acid deposition. Fossil fuels The sulfur compounds are converted to sulfuric acid and NO to nitric acid, and ammonia reacts with x theseacidstoformammoniumsalts.Bothprecursors SO N2,H N3 Ox SSOO422, −N NOOx 3N−NHH3 4+ SSOO422−, NNOO3x− NNHH34 + SO4S2−O N2O, N3O−NxH N4H+3 (nSiOtri2c,aNciOd,x,anadndamNmHo3n)iuanmdsaplrtosd)ucactnsb(esutlrfaunriscpoarctiedd, Rain over long distances (up to 1500km), depending on Wet and dry meteorological conditions, speed of conversion, and NH3 NOx SO2 Dry teW Wet d Dryeposition rSeOmo,vNalOby,daepnodsitNioHn p,robceehsasvees. Tdihfefegreansetlsyeminitttehde, 2 x 3 Emissions atmosphere. The residence time of NH3 is relatively short because it is emitted at low level (near the Dry teW ground), it converts quickly to NHþ, and the dry 4 deposition rate is fairly high. NH is transported 3 100–500km. The horizontal and vertical concentra- FIGURE 2 Emission, transport, and deposition of acidifying tiongradientsaresteep,soconcentrationsanddepo- pollutants. sitions can vary significantly over small distances. 5 AcidDepositionandEnergyUse This means that a large proportion of the NH physical and chemical processes in the atmosphere, 3 emitted in The Netherlands is also deposited within andthereceptortype(landuse,roughness,moisture thiscountry.OnceconvertedintoNHþ,whichhasa status, degree of stomatal opening of vegetation, 4 much lower rate of deposition, the transport snow cover, etc.). When gases and/or particles are distances are much greater (up to 1500km). SO is depositedorabsorbeddirectlyfromtheair,wespeak 2 mainly emitted into the atmosphere by high sources of dry deposition. When they reach the surface andcanthereforebetransportedoverlongdistances, dissolved in rain or another form of precipitation, despiteitsrelativelyhighdepositionrate. SomeNO we refer to wet deposition. If this occurs in mist or x is also emitted by low sources (traffic). However, fog,itiscloud/fogdeposition.Thetotaldepositionis becauseofitslowdepositionrateandrelativelyslow the sum of the dry, wet, and cloud/fog deposition. conversion rate into rapidly deposited gases (HNO Throughfall is washed from the vegetation by rain 3 and HNO ), NO is transported over relatively long falling on the soil beneath the forest canopy. It is a 2 x distances before it disappears from the atmosphere. measure of the load on the vegetation’s surface, SO is quickly converted to sulfuric acid (H SO ) whereas the total deposition indicates the load on 2 2 4 after deposition, both in water and in soil. NO and thewholesystem(soilþvegetation).Netthroughfall x NH andtheirsubsequentproductscontributetothe is the difference between throughfall and wet 3 eutrophication and also the acidification of the deposition in the open field; it is a measure of the environment as a result of conversion to nitric acid dry deposition plus cloud/fog deposition when no (HNO ) in the air (NO ) or in the soil (NH ). exchangetakesplacewiththeforestcanopy(uptake 3 x 3 Since the three primary gases (SO , NO , and or discharge of substances through leaves, micro- 2 x NH )canreactandbeinequilibriumwitheachother organisms, etc.). 3 and with the different reaction products in the To understand the impact of emissions on the atmosphere, there is a strong and complex mutual effectscausedbyaciddepositionandeutrophication, relationship. If, for example, there were no NH in thewholechainofemissions,transport,atmospheric 3 theatmosphere,SO wouldbeconvertedlessquickly conversion, dry and wet deposition, and the effects 2 to SO2(cid:2). The environment, however, would also be caused by the total deposition loads, including the 4 ‘‘more acid’’so that the deposition rate of acidifying role of groundwater and soils, must be understood. compounds would be reduced (poor solubility of Wetanddrydepositionarenotonlytheprocessesby these compounds in acid waters). The net impact is whichpollutantsaretransportedtotheearthsurface difficult to determine, but it is certainly true that if and humans and ecosystems are exposed to acid the emission of one of the compounds increases or deposition and eutrophication but also play an decreases relative to that of the others, this will also essential role in cleaning of the atmosphere. If influencethetransportdistancesanddepositionrates removal by wet and dry deposition stopped, the of the other compounds. This is only partly taken earth’s atmosphere would be unsuitable to sustain into account in the scenario calculations because life in a relatively short period—on the order of a such links have not been fully incorporated into the few months. models. Since acidifying deposition involves different The base cations can neutralize the acidifying substances, it is necessary to give these substances a deposition and, after deposition to the soil, they act singledenominatorinordertoindicatethetotalload as a buffer both in terms of neutralization and in of acidifying substances. For this purpose, the total terms of uptake by plants and the prevention of load is expressed as potential acid, calculated as nutrient deficiencies. This applies especially to the follows: Mg2þ, Ca2þ, and Kþ compounds. The degree of 2SO þNO þNH ðmolHþha=yearÞ; x y x deposition of base cations is therefore important in determining the critical loads that an ecosystem where SO are oxidized sulfur compounds, NO are x y can bear or the exceedances thereof. Thus, accurate oxidized nitrogen compounds, and NH are reduced x loads are also required for base cations on a local nitrogencompounds.Theconceptofpotentialacidis scale. These estimates are not available for The used because NH is considered to be a potentially 3 Netherlands nor for Europe. acidifyingsubstance.Intheatmosphere,NH actsas 3 The nature and size of the load of acidifying abase,whichleadstotheneutralizationofacidssuch substances on the surface depend on the character- asHNO andH SO .However,theNHþ formedin 3 2 4 4 istics of the emission sources (height and point or the soil can be converted to NO(cid:2) so that acid is still 3 diffuse source), the distance from the source, produced via bacterial conversion (nitrification)

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Encyclopedia of Energy Volume I (Encyclopedia of Energy Series) PDF

858 Pages·2004·12.935 MB·English
by  Robert U Ayres, Robert Costanza, Jose Goldemberg, Marija D Ilic, Eberhard Jochem, Robert Kaufmann, Amory B Lovins, Mohan Munasinghe, R K Pachauri, Claudia Sheinbaum Pardo, Per Peterson, Lee Schipper, Margaret Slade, Vaclav Smil, Ernst Worrell, Cutler J. Cleveland
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Preview Encyclopedia of Energy Volume I (Encyclopedia of Energy Series)

PREFACE The history of human culture can be viewed as the The study of energy has played a pivotal role in progressive development of new energy sources and understandingthecreationoftheuniverse,theorigin their associated conversion technologies. Advances of life, the evolution of human civilization and in our understanding of energy have produced culture, economic growth and the rise of living unparalleled transformations of society, as exempli- standards, war and geopolitics, and significant fied by James Watt’s steam engine and the discovery environmental change at local, regional, and global of oil. These transformations increased the ability of scales. humans to exploit both additional energy and other The unique importance of energy among natural resources, and hence to increase the comfort, long- resources makes information about all aspects of its evity, and affluence of humans, as well as their attributes, formation, distribution, extraction, and numbers. Energy is related to human development use an extremely valuable commodity. The Encyclo- in three important ways: as a motor of economic pedia of Energy is designed to deliver this informa- growth,asaprincipalsourceofenvironmentalstress, tion in a clear and comprehensive fashion. It uses an andasaprerequisiteformeetingbasichumanneeds. integrated approach that emphasizes not only the Significantchangesineachoftheseaspectsofhuman importance of the concept in individual disciplines existence are associated with changes in energy suchasphysicsandsociology,butalsohowenergyis sources, beginning with the discovery of fire, the used to bridge seemingly disparate fields, such as advent of agriculture and animal husbandry, and, ecology and economics. As such, this Encyclopedia ultimately, the development of hydrocarbon and provides the first comprehensive, organized body of nuclear fuels. The eventual economic depletion of knowledgeforwhatiscertaintocontinueasamajor fossil fuels will drive another major energy transi- area of scientific study in the 21st century. It is tion; geopolitical forces and environmental impera- designed to appeal to a wide audience including tivessuchasclimatechangemaydrivethistransition undergraduate and graduate students, teachers, faster than hydrocarbon depletion would have by academics, and research scientists who study energy, itself. There is a diverse palette of alternatives to as well as business corporations, professional firms, meetourenergyneeds,includinganewgenerationof government agencies, foundations, and other groups nuclear power, unconventional sources of hydrocar- whose activities relate to energy. bons,myriadsolartechnologies,hydrogen,andmore Comprehensive and interdisciplinary are two efficient energy end use. Each alternative has a words I use to describe the Encyclopedia. It has the different combination of economic, political, tech- comprehensive coverage one would expect: forms nological, social, and environmental attributes. of energy, thermodynamics, electricity generation, Energyisthecommonlinkbetweenthelivingand climate change, energy storage, energy sources, the non-living realms of the universe, and thus provides demandforenergy,andsoon.Whatmakesthiswork an organizing intellectual theme for diverse disci- unique,however,isitsbreadthofcoverage,including plines. Formalization of the concept of energy and insights from history, society, anthropology, public identification of the laws governing its use by 19th policy,internationalrelations,humanandecosystem centuryphysicalscientistssuchasMayerandCarnot health, economics, technology, physics, geology, are cornerstones of modern science and engineering. ecology, business management, environmental xxxi xxxii Preface science, and engineering. The coverage and integra- asanuncannycombinationofvision,enthusiasm,and tion of the social sciences is a unique feature. energyfortheproject.IoweChrisagreatdealforhis The interdisciplinary approach is employed in the insightandprofessionalism.Ispentcountlesshourson treatmentofimportantsubjects.Inthecaseofoil,as thephonewithRobertMatsumura,whowastheglue one example, there are entries on the history of oil, that held the project together. Chris and Robert were the history of OPEC, the history of oil prices, oil ably assisted by outstanding Academic Press/Elsevier price volatility, the formation of oil and gas, the staff,especiallyNickPanissidi,JoannaDinsmore,and distribution of oil resources, oil exploration and Mike Early. Clare Marl and her team put together a drilling, offshore oil, occupational hazards in the oil highly effective and creative marketing plan. industry,oilrefining,energypolicyintheoilindustry, At the next stage, the Editorial Board was the geopolitics of oil, oil spills, oil transportation, invaluable in shaping the coverage and identifying public lands and oil development, social impacts of authors. The Board is an outstanding collection of oil and gas development, gasoline additives and scholars from the natural, social, and engineering public health, and the environmental impact of the sciences who are recognized leaders in their fields of Persian Gulf War. Other subjects are treated in a research.Theyhelpedassembleanequallyimpressive similar way. group of authors from every discipline and who This has been a massive and extremely satisfying represent universities, government agencies, national effort. As with any work of this scale, many people laboratories, consulting firms, think tanks, corpora- have contributed at every step of the process, tions, and nongovernmental organizations. I am including the staff of Academic Press/Elsevier. The especially proud of the international scope of the project began through the encouragement of Frank authors: more than 400 authors from 40 nations are Cynar and David Packer, with Frank helping to represented from every continent and every stage of successfully launch the initiative. Henri van Dorssen development.Toallofthese,Iextendmythanksand skillfully guided the project through its completion. congratulations. Hewas especiallyhelpful with integratingthe project formulation, production, and marketing aspects of Cutler Cleveland the project. Chris Morris was with the project Boston University throughout, and displayed what I can only describe Boston, Massachusetts, United States FOREWORD Energy generation and use are strongly linked to all projected carbon emissions to levels below the elements of sustainable development: economic, present. social, and environmental. The history of human Dependence on imported fuels leaves many development rests on the availability and use of countries vulnerable to disruption in supply, which energy, the transformation from the early use of fire might pose physical hardships and economic bur- andanimalpowerthatimprovedlives,tothepresent dens;theweightoffossilfuelimportsonthebalance world with use of electricity and clean fuels for a of payments is unbearable for many poorer coun- multitude of purposes. This progress built on basic tries. The present energy system of countries heavily scientific discoveries, such as electromagnetism and dependent on fossil fuels geographically concen- theinventionsoftechnologiessuchassteamengines, trated in a few regions of the world adds security light bulbs, and automobiles. of supply aspects. It is thus abundantly clear that access to afford- From the issues indicated here it is clear that able energy is fundamental to human activities, major changes are required in energy system devel- development, and economic growth. Without access opmentworldwide.Atafirstglance,thereappearsto to electricity and clean fuels, people’s opportunities be many conflicting objectives. For example, is it are significantly constrained. However, it is really possible to sustain poverty alleviation and economic energy services, not energy per se that matters. Yet, growth while reducing GHG emissions? Can urban today some 2 billion people lack access to modern areas and transport expand while improving air energy carriers. quality? What would be the preferable trade-offs? In addition to the great benefits, the generation, Finding ways to expand energy services while transportation, and use of energy carriers unfortu- simultaneously addressing the environmental im- nately come with undesired effects. The environ- pacts associated with energy use represents a critical mental impacts are multifaceted and serious, challenge to humanity. althoughmostlylessevident.Emissionsofsuspended What are the options? Looking at physical fine particles and precursors of acid deposition resources, one finds they are abundant. Fossil fuels contribute to local and regional air pollution and will be able to provide the energy carriers that the ecosystem degradation. Human health is threatened world is used to for hundreds of years. Renewable by high levels of air pollution resulting from energy flows on Earth are many thousands of times particular types of energy use at the household, larger than flows through energy markets. Therefore, community, and regional levels. there are no apparent constraints from a resource Emissions of anthropogenic greenhouse gases point of view. However, the challenge is how to use (GHG), mostly from the production and use theseresourcesinanenvironmentallyacceptableway. of energy, are altering the atmosphere in ways The broad categories of options for using energy in that are affecting the climate. There is new and ways that support sustainable development are (1) stronger evidence that most of the global warming moreefficientuseofenergyinallsectors,especiallyat observed over the last 50 years is attributable the point of end use, (2) increased use of renewable to human activities. Stabilization of GHG in the energy sources, and (3) accelerated development and atmosphere will require a major reduction in the deploymentofnewandadvancedenergytechnologies, xxvii xxviii Foreword including next-generation fossil fuel technologies that protect important public benefits, including the produce near-zero harmful emissions. Technologies following: are available in these areas to meet the challenges of (cid:1) Cost-based prices, including phasing out all sustainable development. In addition, innovation forms of permanent subsidies for conven- provides increasing opportunities. tional energy (now on the order of $250 Analysis using energy scenarios indicates that it is billion a year) and internalizing external indeed possible to simultaneously address the sus- environmental and health costs and benefits tainable development objectives using the available (nowsometimeslargerthantheprivatecosts). natural resources and technical options presented. A (cid:1) Removing obstacles and providing incentives, prerequisite for achieving energy futures compatible as needed, to encourage greater energy with sustainable development objectives is finding efficiency and the development and/or diffu- ways to accelerate progress for new technologies sion of new technologies for energy for along the energy innovation chain, including re- sustainable development to wider markets. search and development, demonstration, deploy- (cid:1) RecentpowerfailuresontheNorthAmerican ment, and diffusion. Eastern Seaboard, in California, London It is significant that there already exist combina- (United Kingdom), Sweden, and Italy illus- tions of technologies that meet all sustainable tratethestrongdependenceonreliablepower development challenges at the same time. This will networks. Power sector reform that recog- make it easier to act locally to address pollution nizes the unique character of electricity, and problemsofamajorcityorcountrywhileatthesame avoids power crises as seen in recent years, is time mitigating climate change. Policies for energy needed. forsustainabledevelopmentcanbelargelymotivated (cid:1) Reversing the trend of declining Official Devel- by national concerns and will not have to rely only opment Assistance and Foreign Direct Investments, on global pressures. especially as related to energy for sustainable However, with present policies and conditions in development. the marketplaces that determine energy generation and use such desired energy futures will not happen. This is a long list of opportunities and challenges. Aprerequisiteforsustainabledevelopment ischange To move sufficiently in the direction of sustain- in policies affecting energy for sustainable develop- ability will require actions by the public and the ment. This brings a need to focus on the policy private sector, as well as other stakeholders, at situationandunderstandincentivesanddisincentives thenational,regional,andgloballevels.Thedecisive related to options for options for energy for issuesarenottechnologyornaturalresourcescarcity, sustainable development. buttheinstitutions,rules,financingmechanisms,and Policies and actions to promote energy for regulationsneededtomakemarketsworkinsupport sustainable development would include the follow- of energy for sustainable development. A number of ing: countries, including Spain, Germany, and Brazil, as wellassomestatesintheUnitedStateshaveadopted (cid:1) Developing capacity among all stakeholders in successful laws and regulations designed to increase all countries, especially in the public sector, to the use of renewable energy sources. Some regions, address issues related to energy for sustainable including Latin America and the European Union, development. have set targets for increased use of renewable (cid:1) Adopting policies and mechanisms to increase energy. However, much remains to be done. access to energy services through modern fuels and Energy was indeed one of the most intensely electricity for the 2 billion without. debated issues at the United Nations World Summit (cid:1) Advancing innovation, with balanced emphasis on Sustainable Development (WSSD), held in Johan- on all steps of the innovation chain: research and nesburg,South Africa, in August/September, 2002. In development, demonstrations, cost buy-down, and the end, agreement was reached on a text that wide dissemination. significantly advances the attention given to energy (cid:1) Setting appropriate market framework condi- in the context of sustainable development. This was tions (including continued market reform, consistent in fact the first time agreements could be reached regulatory measures, and targeted policies) to en- on energy at the world level! These develop- couragecompetitivenessinenergymarkets,toreduce ments followed years of efforts to focus on energy total cost of energy services to end-users, and to as an instrument for sustainable development that xxix Foreword intensified after the United Nations Conference on energy, a total of 39 partnerships were presented to Environment and Development in 1992. theUnitedNationsSecretariatforWSSDtopromote The United Nations General Assembly adopted programs on energy forsustainable development, 23 theMillenniumDevelopmentGoals(MDG)in2000. with energy as a central focus and 16 with a These goals are set in areas such as extreme considerable impact on energy. These partnerships poverty and hunger, universal primary education, includedmostprominentlytheDESA-ledCleanFuels gender equality and empowerment of women, and Transport Initiative, the UNDP/World Bank-led child mortality, maternal health, HIV/AIDS, malaria Global Village Energy Partnership (GVEP), the and other diseases, and environmental sustain- Johannesburg Renewable Energy Coalition (JREC), ability. However, more than 2 billion people cannot the EU Partnership on Energy for Poverty Eradica- access affordable energy services, based on the tion and Sustainable Development, and the UNEP- efficient use of gaseous and liquid fuels and led Global Network on Energy for Sustainable electricity. This constrains their opportunities for Development (GNESD). economic development and improved living stan- With secure access to affordable and clean energy dards.Womenandchildrensufferdisproportionately being so fundamental to sustainable development, because of their relative dependence on traditional the publication of the Encyclopedia of Energy is fuels. Although no explicit goal on energy was extremely timely and significant. Academics, profes- adopted, access to energy services is a prerequisite sionals, scholars, politicians, students, and many to achieving all of the MDGs. more will benefit tremendously from the easy access Some governments and corporations have already to knowledge, experience, and insights that are demonstrated that policies and measures to promote provided here. energy solutions conducive to sustainable develop- ment can work, and indeed work very well. The Thomas B. Johansson renewedfocusandbroadagreementsonenergyinthe Professor and Director JohannesburgPlanofImplementationandatthe18th International Institute for WorldEnergyCongressarepromising.Theformation Industrial Environmental Economics ofmanypartnershipsonenergybetweenstakeholders Lund University at WSSD is another encouraging sign. A sustainable Lund, Sweden future in which energy plays a major positive role in supporting human well-being is possible! Former Director Progressisbeingmadeonmanyfrontsinbringing Energy and Atmosphere Programme new technologies to the market, and to widening United Nations Development Programme access to modern forms of energy. In relation to New York, United States Acid Deposition and Energy Use A JAN WILLEM ERISMAN EnergyResearch Centre of theNetherlands Petten, TheNetherlands pollutant Any substance in the wrong place at the wrong 1. Introduction time is a pollutant. Atmospheric pollution may be definedasthepresenceofsubstancesintheatmosphere, 2. Acid Deposition,ItsEffects, andCriticalLoads resulting from man-made activities or from natural 3. Processes inthe CausalChain:Emission,Transport, processes, causing effects to manandthe environment. andDeposition 4. Emissions from EnergyUse 5. Abatement andTrendsinEmission Acid deposition originates largely from man-made 6. Acid Deposition emissions of three gases: sulfur dioxide (SO ), 7. Benefits and Recovery ofEcosystems 2 nitrogen oxides (NO ), and ammonia (NH ). It 8. FutureAbatement x 3 damages acid-sensitive freshwater systems, forests, 9. Conclusion soils, and natural ecosystems in large areas of Europe, the United States, and Asia. Effects include defoliation and reduced vitality of trees; declining fish stocks and decreasing diversity of other aquatic Glossary animals in acid-sensitive lakes, rivers, and streams; acid deposition The removal of acidic or acidifying and changes in soil chemistry. Cultural heritage is componentsfromtheatmospherebyprecipitation(rain, also damaged, such as limestone and marble build- cloud droplets, fog, snow, or hail); also known as acid ings, monuments, and stained-glass windows. De- rainoracid precipitation. position of nitrogen compounds also causes acidification The generation of more hydrogen ions (Hþ) eutrophication effects in terrestrial and marine thanhydroxideions(OH(cid:2))sothatthepHbecomesless ecosystems. The combination of acidification and than7. eutrophication increases the acidification effects. criticallevel Themaximumpollutantconcentrationapart Energy contributes approximately 82, 59, and of the environment can be exposed to without 0.1% to the global emissions of SO , NO , and significantharmfuleffects. 2 x NH , respectively. Measures to reduce acid deposi- critical load The maximum amount of pollutant deposi- 3 tion have led to controls of emissions in the United tion a part of the environment can tolerate without significantharmfuleffects. States and Europe. Sulfur emissions were reduced deposition Can be either wet or dry. In dry deposition, 18% between 1990 and 1998 in the United States material is removed from the atmosphere by contact and 41% in Europe during the same period. At the with a surface. In wet deposition, material is removed sametime,emissionsinAsiaincreased43%.Inareas fromthe atmosphere byprecipitation. of the world in which emissions have decreased, the emissions Thereleaseofprimarypollutantsdirectlytothe effectshavedecreased;mostnotably,lakeacidityhas atmosphere by processes such as combustion and also decreased due to a decrease in sulfur emissions, bynatural processes. resulting in lower sulfate and acid concentrations. eutrophication An increase of the amount of nutrients in However,systemswithalongresponsetimehavenot waters orsoils. seen improvement yet and very limited recovery has nitrification Theconversionofammoniumions(NHþ)to 4 nitrate (NO(cid:2)). also been observed. Emissions should therefore be 3 nonlinearity The observed nonlinear relationship between further reduced and sustainable levels should be reductions in primary emissions and in pollutant maintained to decrease the effects and to see deposition. recovery. This will require drastic changes in our EncyclopediaofEnergy,Volume1.r2004ElsevierInc.Allrightsreserved. 1 2 AcidDepositionandEnergyUse energy consumption and the switch to sustainable 400 16000 energy sources. Before renewable energy sources can Primary energy consumption, EJ fzseteauihenmnmlrovdfioieuislr-.sllNeodiTomnaOnhmiblssexaesebrinmeogetmnecaodalisofsputonsiasimsceeorsotinptslihsatonf.-icufestfeWsowfslesuuhiacclrmetrlhienvreuenesassateutdwrabldgtraewyrtyieiinansmniysgsdeepeedtlwdtcoehrsmiaea,trthaetetsndhteStuhdeseOceidifeun2f.sesCTeaSraemOOhnnoide22stf y consumption and share 332211505050000000 PESSlhoheapacrurteerliassc t ioitooyffn gPP, eEEmnCCeil l roicaoiotln iaoalnn (,d% T g)Wash (%) 111864420000000000000000000opulation and electricitygeneration (TWh) NOx emissions, an energy penalty compensates for nerg 50 2000 P the emission reductions. E 0 0 1880 1900 1920 1940 1960 1980 2000 2020 Year 1. INTRODUCTION FIGURE1 Theworldwideuseoffossilfuelsinmillionsoftons peryear.AdaptedfromSmil(2000). The alarm regarding the increasing acidification of precipitation in Europe and eastern North America was first sounded in the 1960s. Since then, most attention has focused on acid rain’s effects, estab- sources has increased and has become higher than lishedandsuspected,onlakesandstreams,withtheir the share of coal. populations of aquatic life, and on forests, although Thefirstenvironmentalconsequencesoftheuseof the list of concerns is far broader: It includes fossilfuelsweretheproblemsofsmokeinhousesand contamination of groundwater, corrosion of man- urban air quality. Human health was affected by the made structures, and, recently, deterioration of useofcoalwithhighsulfurcontent,producingsulfur coastal waters. dioxide and carbon monoxide. The history of Theprocessesthatconvertthegasesintoacidand London clearly shows the ever-increasing problems wash them from the atmosphere began operating related to coal use and the struggle to abate this long before humans started to burn large quantities pollution, culminating in the famous London smog of fossil fuels. Sulfur and nitrogen compounds are in1952,fromwhichthousandsofpeopledied.Inthe also released by natural processes such as volcanism 1950sand1960s,airpollutionbecameanimportant and the activity of soil bacteria. However, human issue but was mainly considered on the local scale. economicactivityhasmadethereactionsvastlymore One of the abatement options was to increase the important. They are triggered by sunlight and stack height in order to take advantage of atmo- depend on the atmosphere’s abundant supply of spheric dispersion, leading to dilution of pollutant oxygen and water. concentrations before humans could be exposed. Wood was the first source for energy production. Thisformedthebasisofthetransboundarynatureof Wood was used for the preparation of food and for acid deposition as we know it today and increased heating.Afterthediscoveryoffossilfuelsintheform thescalefromlocaltoregionalandevencontinental. of coal as a source of energy, it was used for heating The use of fossil fuels increased, and the pollutants purposes. During the industrial revolution, coal, were transported to remote areas, which had very followedbycrudeoilandlaternaturalgas,provided clean air until that time. alargesourceofenergythatstimulatedtechnological Acid rain was first recognized as a serious development,resultinginthereplacementofanimals environmental problem by Robert Angus Smith, an and people in the production of goods, increased alkali inspector based in Manchester. He started a possibilities for mobility, and the enabling of monitoring network with approximately 12 sites at industries to process raw materials into a large which rainfall was collected and analyzed. In 1852, variety of products. When the possibilities of energy hewroteaboutthecorrelationbetweencoalburning production and use became apparent, the use of and acid pollution in and around the industrial fossil fuels grew exponentially. Figure 1 provides an centerofManchester.Heidentifiedthreetypesofair: overview of the worldwide use of fossil fuels since ‘‘that with carbonate of ammonia in the fields at a 1900.Itshowsthatthetotalglobalenergyconsump- distance y that with sulphate of ammonia in the tion is closely linked to the growth of the world’s suburbs, y and that with sulphuric acid, or acid population. The share of oil and gas as energy sulphate,inthetown.’’In1872,hewrotethefamous 3 AcidDepositionandEnergyUse book, Air and Rain: The Beginnings of a Chemical damage in forests. Trees showed decreased foliage Climatology. He referred to the acidity of rain and or needles, and this damage even progressed to the air and its effect on humans and buildings. This was point that trees would die, a phenomenon that the beginning of acidification research, although this happenedintheborderareaofformerEastGermany, was recognized only much later. Poland, and former Czechoslovakia. This tree die- Aciddepositionisoneoftheoldesttransboundary back was also attributed to acidification of the soil. environmental problems. Several components and However, exposure to increased oxidant concentra- thus emission sources contribute to acid deposition, tionswasdeterminedtobeanothercause.Inthemid- making it a complex problem and difficult to abate. 1980s, nitrogen deposition to terrestrial and aquatic Itisoneofthemoststudiedenvironmentalproblems ecosystems was found to cause negative effects and there is a large body of literature. This article through eutrophication. Acidification and eutrophi- givesanoverviewofthestateofknowledgeofenergy cation are both caused by atmospheric deposition of production and use and acid deposition. First, an pollutants,andthecombinationincreasestheeffects, overview is given of acid deposition, the conse- causing too high nutrient concentrations in soil and quences of acid deposition, and the processes groundwater. Nitrate and ammonium are beneficial, involved. The contribution of energy is discussed evenessential,forvegetationgrowth,butintoohigh next, and an estimate of the progress made to concentration they lead to the loss of diversity, decrease the emissions from energy sources is given. especiallyinoligotrophicecosystems(i.e.,ecosystems Finally, future options to decrease acid deposition adapted to low nutrient availability). This problem and the options for decreasing energy emissions are has mainly been encountered in central and north- discussed. western Europe. The effects of acid deposition include changes in terrestrial and aquatic ecosystems showing acidifica- tion of soils, shifts in plant community composition, 2. ACID DEPOSITION, ITS EFFECTS, loss of species diversity, forest damage, water AND CRITICAL LOADS acidification and loss of fish populations, reduction in growth yield of sensitive agricultural crops, and Acid deposition is the deposition of air pollutants to damage to cultural heritage and to building materi- ecosystems leading to acidification and eutrophica- als. The common factor for all these effects is that tion,whichcausenegativeeffectsintheseecosystems. pollutants, or their precursors, are emitted, trans- The components contributing to acid deposition are ported in the atmosphere, and deposited by way of sulfur compounds (SO and SO ), oxidized nitrogen precipitation(wetdeposition)orasgasesorparticles 2 4 compounds (NO, NO , HNO , HNO , and NO ), (dry deposition). In some cases, acid deposition 2 2 3 3 and reduced nitrogen compounds (NH and NH ). occurs 1000km or more from where the responsible 3 4 Some rain is naturally acidic because of the carbon emissions were generated. dioxide (CO ) in air that dissolves with rain water Ifdepositionexceedssustainablelevels,effectscan 2 and forms a weak acid. This kind of acid is actually occurdependingonthedurationoftheexposureand beneficialbecauseithelpsdissolvemineralsinthesoil the level of exceedance. Sustainable levels can be that both plants and animals need. Ammonia acts as represented by critical loads and critical levels. The a base in the atmosphere, neutralizing nitric and critical load is formally defined by the United sulfuricacid,butinsoilammoniaitcanbeconverted NationsEconomicCommissionforEurope(UNECE) by microorganisms to nitric acid, producing addi- as ‘‘a quantitative estimate of exposure to one or tional acid in the process. more pollutants below which significant harmful The first sign of the effects of acid deposition was effects on sensitive elements of the environment do the loss of fish populations in Canadian, Scandina- not occur according to present knowledge.’’ This vian, and U.S. lakes in the early 1960s. It was found definition can be applied to a wide range of thatthewaterinthelakeswasacidifiedtoapointat phenomena and not merely acid rain. Any process whichfisheggsnolongerproducedyoungspecimens. in which damage will occur if depositions exceed This was caused by acid deposition; precipitation natural sink processes has a critical load set by had introduced so much acid in the lakes that pH those sink processes. The concept of critical loads or levels had declined below the critical limit for egg levels has been used to provide a scientific basis for hatching.Afewyearslater,reportsfromCanada,the the incorporation of environmental impacts in the United States, and Germany indicated unusual developmentofnationalandinternationalpoliciesto 4 AcidDepositionandEnergyUse control transboundary air pollutants, within the contain sulfur compounds, which are emitted into framework of the UNECE Convention on the the atmosphere as SO after combustion. Oxidized 2 ControlofTransboundaryAirPollution.Theconcept nitrogen has several sources but is formed mainly by isbasedontheprecautionaryprinciple:Criticalloads combustion processes in which fuel N is oxidized or andlevelsaresettopreventanylong-termdamageto atmospheric N is oxidized at high temperatures. 2 themostsensitiveknownelementsofanyecosystem. These processes are relevant for industries, traffic, The critical loads approach is an example of an and energy production. Among the other sources of effects-based approach to pollution control, which oxidized nitrogen, soils are most important. Ammo- considers that the impact of deposited material niaismainlyemittedfromagriculturalsources.Fossil depends on where it lands. Similar industrial plants fuels seem less important for ammonia than for the may have different pollution impacts depending on other two pollutants. Through the use of fertilizer, thedifferentcapacitiesofthereceivingenvironments which is produced from natural gas, there is a link to absorb, buffer, or tolerate pollutant loads. The withenergy.Indirectly,theincreasedenergyusefrom policy goal with effects-based strategies is ultimately fossil fuels to produce fertilizer has increased nitro- to ensure that the abatement on emissions from all gen emissions from agriculture and contributed to plants is adequate so that no absorptive capacities, acidification. Energy use first increased mobility. nor air quality standards, are exceeded. Food is therefore not necessarily produced in the area where it is consumed. Furthermore, relatively cheap nutrient resources (animal feed) are trans- 3. PROCESSES IN THE CAUSAL portedfromonecontinenttoanother,wheretheyare concentrated in intensive livestock breeding areas. CHAIN: EMISSION, TRANSPORT, Also, fossil fuels, first in the form of coal but now AND DEPOSITION mainlyfromnaturalgas,providethebasistoproduce fertilizers, which are used to produce the food The causal chain represents the sequence of emis- necessary to feed the ever-growing population sions into the atmosphere, transport and chemical throughout the world and to fulfill the need for the reactions,depositiontotheearthsurface,andcycling growing demands for more luxurious food. within the ecosystems until eventually the compo- Base cations play an important role because they nents are fixed or transformed in a form having no can neutralize acids in the atmosphere and the soil, effects.ThiscausalchainisshowninFig.2.Afterthe limiting the effect of acid deposition. On the other causal chain is understood and parameterized in hand, base cations contribute to the particle concen- models, it can be used to assess the possibilities for trations in the atmosphere, affecting human health reducing the effects. when inhaled. Sources of base cations are energy production, agricultural practices, and road dust. 3.1 Emission 3.2 Transport and Deposition Theuseoffossilfuelsforenergyproductionisoneof the main causes of acid deposition. Fossil fuels The sulfur compounds are converted to sulfuric acid and NO to nitric acid, and ammonia reacts with x theseacidstoformammoniumsalts.Bothprecursors SO N2,H N3 Ox SSOO422, −N NOOx 3N−NHH3 4+ SSOO422−, NNOO3x− NNHH34 + SO4S2−O N2O, N3O−NxH N4H+3 (nSiOtri2c,aNciOd,x,anadndamNmHo3n)iuanmdsaplrtosd)ucactnsb(esutlrfaunriscpoarctiedd, Rain over long distances (up to 1500km), depending on Wet and dry meteorological conditions, speed of conversion, and NH3 NOx SO2 Dry teW Wet d Dryeposition rSeOmo,vNalOby,daepnodsitNioHn p,robceehsasvees. Tdihfefegreansetlsyeminitttehde, 2 x 3 Emissions atmosphere. The residence time of NH3 is relatively short because it is emitted at low level (near the Dry teW ground), it converts quickly to NHþ, and the dry 4 deposition rate is fairly high. NH is transported 3 100–500km. The horizontal and vertical concentra- FIGURE 2 Emission, transport, and deposition of acidifying tiongradientsaresteep,soconcentrationsanddepo- pollutants. sitions can vary significantly over small distances. 5 AcidDepositionandEnergyUse This means that a large proportion of the NH physical and chemical processes in the atmosphere, 3 emitted in The Netherlands is also deposited within andthereceptortype(landuse,roughness,moisture thiscountry.OnceconvertedintoNHþ,whichhasa status, degree of stomatal opening of vegetation, 4 much lower rate of deposition, the transport snow cover, etc.). When gases and/or particles are distances are much greater (up to 1500km). SO is depositedorabsorbeddirectlyfromtheair,wespeak 2 mainly emitted into the atmosphere by high sources of dry deposition. When they reach the surface andcanthereforebetransportedoverlongdistances, dissolved in rain or another form of precipitation, despiteitsrelativelyhighdepositionrate. SomeNO we refer to wet deposition. If this occurs in mist or x is also emitted by low sources (traffic). However, fog,itiscloud/fogdeposition.Thetotaldepositionis becauseofitslowdepositionrateandrelativelyslow the sum of the dry, wet, and cloud/fog deposition. conversion rate into rapidly deposited gases (HNO Throughfall is washed from the vegetation by rain 3 and HNO ), NO is transported over relatively long falling on the soil beneath the forest canopy. It is a 2 x distances before it disappears from the atmosphere. measure of the load on the vegetation’s surface, SO is quickly converted to sulfuric acid (H SO ) whereas the total deposition indicates the load on 2 2 4 after deposition, both in water and in soil. NO and thewholesystem(soilþvegetation).Netthroughfall x NH andtheirsubsequentproductscontributetothe is the difference between throughfall and wet 3 eutrophication and also the acidification of the deposition in the open field; it is a measure of the environment as a result of conversion to nitric acid dry deposition plus cloud/fog deposition when no (HNO ) in the air (NO ) or in the soil (NH ). exchangetakesplacewiththeforestcanopy(uptake 3 x 3 Since the three primary gases (SO , NO , and or discharge of substances through leaves, micro- 2 x NH )canreactandbeinequilibriumwitheachother organisms, etc.). 3 and with the different reaction products in the To understand the impact of emissions on the atmosphere, there is a strong and complex mutual effectscausedbyaciddepositionandeutrophication, relationship. If, for example, there were no NH in thewholechainofemissions,transport,atmospheric 3 theatmosphere,SO wouldbeconvertedlessquickly conversion, dry and wet deposition, and the effects 2 to SO2(cid:2). The environment, however, would also be caused by the total deposition loads, including the 4 ‘‘more acid’’so that the deposition rate of acidifying role of groundwater and soils, must be understood. compounds would be reduced (poor solubility of Wetanddrydepositionarenotonlytheprocessesby these compounds in acid waters). The net impact is whichpollutantsaretransportedtotheearthsurface difficult to determine, but it is certainly true that if and humans and ecosystems are exposed to acid the emission of one of the compounds increases or deposition and eutrophication but also play an decreases relative to that of the others, this will also essential role in cleaning of the atmosphere. If influencethetransportdistancesanddepositionrates removal by wet and dry deposition stopped, the of the other compounds. This is only partly taken earth’s atmosphere would be unsuitable to sustain into account in the scenario calculations because life in a relatively short period—on the order of a such links have not been fully incorporated into the few months. models. Since acidifying deposition involves different The base cations can neutralize the acidifying substances, it is necessary to give these substances a deposition and, after deposition to the soil, they act singledenominatorinordertoindicatethetotalload as a buffer both in terms of neutralization and in of acidifying substances. For this purpose, the total terms of uptake by plants and the prevention of load is expressed as potential acid, calculated as nutrient deficiencies. This applies especially to the follows: Mg2þ, Ca2þ, and Kþ compounds. The degree of 2SO þNO þNH ðmolHþha=yearÞ; x y x deposition of base cations is therefore important in determining the critical loads that an ecosystem where SO are oxidized sulfur compounds, NO are x y can bear or the exceedances thereof. Thus, accurate oxidized nitrogen compounds, and NH are reduced x loads are also required for base cations on a local nitrogencompounds.Theconceptofpotentialacidis scale. These estimates are not available for The used because NH is considered to be a potentially 3 Netherlands nor for Europe. acidifyingsubstance.Intheatmosphere,NH actsas 3 The nature and size of the load of acidifying abase,whichleadstotheneutralizationofacidssuch substances on the surface depend on the character- asHNO andH SO .However,theNHþ formedin 3 2 4 4 istics of the emission sources (height and point or the soil can be converted to NO(cid:2) so that acid is still 3 diffuse source), the distance from the source, produced via bacterial conversion (nitrification)

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