Encyclopedia of Educational Philosophy and Theory

2724 Pages·34.749 MB·English

by  Michael Peters (eds.)

P
Philosophical Idealism Plato
and Educational Theory
An ancient tradition records that above the
MarkJoyal entrance to Plato’s Academy was displayed the
UniversityofManitoba,Winnipeg,MB,Canada inscription,“Letnooneenterwhodoesnotknow
geometry.” The earliest surviving evidence for
thisinscriptionisinaworkbytheEmperorJulian
Introduction
(AgainstHeracliustheCynic237d),writtensome
750 years after Plato established his school, and
Among ancient discussions of Greek education, there is good cause to believe that the story is
philosophical idealism makes itsfirstappearance apocryphal. Nevertheless, the tradition reflects
in Plato’s Republic, within his formulation of an important realities about Plato, his philosophical
ideal state. Here the mathematical sciences and priorities,andhiseducationalgoalsbothintheory
dialectic are presented as affording the student a (inhis writings) andinpractice (intheAcademy
path to the apprehension of unmediated reality, itself). Drawing philosophical inspiration espe-
which,inPlatonictheory,iseducation’ssupreme cially from his Pythagorean predecessors, Plato
goal. Most subsequent discussion or activity looked to mathematical sciences (arithmetic,
among Greeks and Romans which attempts to planeandsolidgeometry,astronomy,harmonics)
integrate philosophical idealism either develops as providing the most compelling evidence for
or responds to Plato’s thinking on this subject. intelligible, immaterial, unchanging reality – the
Plato’s speculation also succeeded in finding transcendent“Forms,”whichheconsideredtobe
accommodationinmorewidespreadviewsabout thestudent’shighestobjectofstudy.
ancient educational curricula and in the thinking Plato describes and discusses his theory of
ofsomemoderneducationists. Forms in numerous dialogues, but it is in his
most famous work, the Republic, that he applies
their contemplation to the system of education
Synonyms which he formulates for his Utopian society.
Here, in Book 7, Socrates explains at length the
shapewhicheducationtakesforthe“Guardians”
Dialectic; Divinization; First principle; Idealism;
of this ideal society and the purpose of this edu-
Mathematics; Reading order; Reality; Theory of
cation(Annas1981,pp.272–293).TheGuardians
forms;Wisdom
havealreadycompletedtheirculturalandphysical
trainingwhentheycometothestudyofnumbers,
#SpringerScience+BusinessMediaSingapore2016
M.A.Peters(ed.),EncyclopediaofEducationalPhilosophyandTheory,
DOI10.1007/978-981-287-532-7_1-1
2 PhilosophicalIdealismandEducationalTheory
whichtheywillpursuetotheageof30.Thisstudy dialogueMeno(81e–85d).HereSocratesinterro-
servesthegeneralpurposeofdevelopingtheintel- gates a young, unschooled household slave who
lect and training people how to think, but much has no previous knowledge of mathematics.
more importantly (in Plato’s view) it turns the Through a long series of carefully framed ques-
mindawayfromourworld, theworld ofbecom- tions he leads the slave to the correct solution to
ing(genesis),towardstruthandreality(ousia),the the problem of doubling the area of a square.
worldofForms(525a–c).NumbersarenotForms, Socrates conducts the interrogation as one who
of course, but in our world of becoming their (like the slave) does not know the answer to the
study is the closest that we can come to Forms problem he has set, in other words, as an “intel-
themselves (Cornford 1932, pp. 38–39). The lectual midwife” who possesses no body of
orderinwhichthemathematicalsubjectsarestud- knowledge himself but is expert in bringing to
iedisimportanttoo.Arithmeticpreparestheway birththeintellectualoffspringconceivedbyothers
for geometry, which requires us to think in two (cf.Theaetetus150b–151c).Theinquiryisthere-
and three dimensions. Astronomy comes after foreviewedasanonempirical“commonsearch.”
geometry; now the student’s eyes are raised up Its success is achieved through a solution that is
fromtheearthtowardstheheavens.Thecelestial basednotonvariableopinion(doxa),aboutwhich
bodies, nevertheless, are material and of this people may well disagree, but on secure knowl-
world. The heavenly music which they create edge(epistêmê),whichisderivedfromimmutable
(originallyaPythagoreanbelief),however,brings numericaltruths.Dialectic,moreover,elevatesthe
us closer to immaterial reality, and it is direct, particular geometrical solution which Socrates
unmediated apprehension of reality that should coaxes from the slave to a general truth whose
bethegoalofeducation. existencedoesnotrelyonthesenses.
Just how can the student achieve this direct There are, then, two stages in the process by
contemplationofreal,unchanginggoodness,jus- which,toPlato’sthinking,thestudentmayappre-
tice,courage,andsoon?Toanswerthisquestion hendpurereality:first,thestudyofthemathemat-
Plato invoked his doctrine of anamnesis, “recol- ical sciences, and then, the learning and
lection,” which presupposes that the soul, in dis- application of dialectic (Cornford 1932,
carnate state, has had direct apprehension and pp.173–190).Weknowfromsurvivingevidence
knowledge of the Forms before a person’s birth. that the practice of dialectic – the processes of
Its subsequent incarnation and contact with the collection, division, and classification – was an
body cause the person in whom the soul has activitycentraltoPlato’sAcademy.
been embodied to forget this knowledge, but it
canbe“recollected”whenthispersonisgiventhe
Aristotle
right promptings, especially through skilful
questioning. A problem with the doctrine of
anamnesis, however, is that it explains why, not Inhisresearchandteaching,Aristotlepursuedthe
how,peopleareabletogainaccesstotheForms. dialectical activity of classification with great
Moreproblematicstillisthatthedoctrinerequires energy. As is well known, however, he broke
proof of the soul’s immortality. Plato therefore decisivelyfromhisteacherPlatobyrejectingthe
saw greater potential for explaining how the theoryofForms.UnlikePlato,hewasanempiri-
study of numbers could lead to apprehension of cist, unwilling to exclude the role of perception
reality in the application of dialectic (Republic andthesensesfromtheacquisitionofknowledge.
532a–535a), which Socrates calls “the capstone Aristotle observed that experience and memory
of the curriculum” (534e) (Annas 1981, enable us to collect related instances of things
pp.276–293). and events, and “from many notions that come
The use of dialectic to accomplish this goal fromexperience,oneuniversalsuppositionabout
(anditsconcomitantpotentialtoexemplifyrecol- similar things is produced” (Metaphysics
lection) is demonstrated most vividly in Plato’s 981a5–7). The procedure which leads to this
PhilosophicalIdealismandEducationalTheory 3
result is called induction; through its application for the preliminary stage of education, which
people are able to apprehend universals which, would later acquire the name enkyklios paideia,
whenanalyzed,yieldfirstprinciples.Butourdis- animportantdesignationoftentranslatedas“stan-
covery of first principles depends on sense per- dardeducation.”Theformerlogoiaretheconcern
ception,sodisputesmaybeexpectedtoariseover of advanced students, whose object of investiga-
theauthenticityofafirstprinciple.Inthesecases, tion would be philosophia, which is concerned
itisthetaskofdialectictodefend(ordisprove)its withtranscendent,theologicalprinciples.
authenticity (Topics 101a25–b4). According to
Aristotle, the knowledge of first principles and
first causes is “clearly” sophia, i.e., “wisdom” LaterPlatonistsandEarlyChristians
(Metaphysics981b25–982a3).
The fact that Aristotle refused toendow these ItremainsdifficulttodeterminehowfarAristotle
firstprincipleswiththeirownseparateexistenceis may have been dependent upon Plato – even if
offundamentalimportanceforunderstandinghis only by reaction against him – in formulating an
breakfromPlatoandtheirdisagreementoverthe educational curriculum which was designed to
goalofeducation.ForPlato,apprehensionoffirst bringthestudenttothecontemplationofimmate-
principles – of his Forms, in other words – is rial existence. About numerous other ancient
impossible when the soul is incarnate, since it is thinkers, however, we need not be in any doubt
thenincontactwiththebody,whichisimplicated (Hadot 2005, pp. 263–293). For instance,
in fallible sense perceptions. For Aristotle, it is the Alexandrian (Jewish) Platonist Philo
onlythroughthesenseorgansthatfirstprinciples (ca. 25 B.C.–ca. A.D. 40), best known for his
canbeapprehended. commentaries on the Pentateuch, often referred
Precisely where Aristotle’s thinking on ideals toenkykliospaideia,especiallythemathematical
belongs in his educational activity is far from sciences,asanimportantbutpreliminarystagein
clear, but the evidence of ancient commentators the curriculum, subordinate to the pursuit of
onhisworks(writingmainlybetweenthesecond philosophia; hence his characterization of this
and the sixth centuries A.D.) may provide some early stage as the “handmaid of wisdom”
help. Some of these commentators distinguished (Intercourse with the Preliminary Subjects
two kinds of Aristotelian writings, the exoterikoi 73–76). Yet just as enkyklios paideia contributes
and the enkyklioi “discussions” or “arguments” to the pursuit of philosophy, so philosophy then
(logoi). Just what the adjectives exoterikoi and contributestothepossessionofwisdom(sophia),
enkyklioi refer to in these phrases is open to which is the knowledge of divine and human
some basic disagreement. Many have believed mattersandtheircauses(79).ClementofAlexan-
that exoterikoi logoi are popular works which dria(ca.150–ca.215)adoptedPhilo’sevaluation
Aristotle intended for wider consumption, espe- of the relative places of enkyklios paideia,
cially philosophical dialogues not unlike Plato’s, philosophia, and sophia (even quoting Philo),
whereasenkyklioilogoiareworkswhichwerenot but Clement went further by defining wisdom as
meant for publication but, being of a more tech- “knowing God” (Miscellanies 1.5.30.1–2).
nicalnature,reflecttheteachingwhichtookplace Lactantius (ca. 240–320) characterized wisdom
inhisschool.Butthereareflawsinthisargument, inasimilarwaybutdeniedthatthepathtosophia
andanalternative proposalhasbeenputforward ranthroughphilosophia,since“knowingGod”is
(Bos 1989, pp. 111–152): exoterikoi logoi are somethingthatallpeople–notonlyphilosophers
discussions which deal with the things outside but “workmen, peasants, women, and all who
(taexo)thephysicalrealm,whileenkyklioilogoi have human form” – are capable of by nature,
deal with physical reality, the things within (en) andthesepeopleshouldthereforereceiveinstruc-
the circle (kyklos) of the universe. These latter tion(TheDivineInstructions3.25–26).
logoi, being nearer to the experience to which The opinions on education of St. Basil of
people can easily relate, are the subject matter Caesarea (329/330–379) demonstratea profound
4 PhilosophicalIdealismandEducationalTheory
ChristianengagementwithPlato’swritingonthe understood;fromthefifteenthcenturyonitgained
subjectanddeservespecialattention.Earlyinhis enormous popularity in western Europe through
essayTotheyoung,onhowtheymaybenefitfrom the Latin translation of Leonardo Bruni
pagan literature (2), delivered ostensibly before (1370–1444).
anaudienceofyouths,Basilmakesabasicpoint St.Augustine(354–430)similarlybelievedthat
emphatically: Christiansconsiderthislifeandits theproductsofpaganlearningcouldbepresented
goods to be nothing, and believe the soul to be to students in order to prepare them to acquire
infinitelymorevaluablethanthebody. knowledgeof“theoneGodhimself”(OnChristian
Teaching 144). The liberal arts, especially the
Solongasyouareunable,becauseofyourage,to
understandthedepthoftheHolyScriptures’mean- mathematical subjects, condition the student for
ing, in the meantime ... we give a preliminary contemplation of higher things (On Order
trainingtotheeyeofthesoul....Wemustrecog- 2.12–16). The influence of Plato, crucial in
nizethatacontestissetbeforeus,thegreatestofall Augustine’s conversion to Christianity
contests, to prepare for which we must do every-
thingandperformeverytask,asfaraswecan,and (Confessions Bks. 7–8), is evident everywhere in
we must associate with [the writings of] poets, hiswritings.LikeBasil,heappliedPlato’simageof
prose-writers,orators,andallmenfromwhomwe “theeyeofthesoul”todescribetheapprehension
arelikelytoderivesomebenefitforthecareofthe
ofintelligiblereality(VariousQuestions46.2).
soul.Justasdyersfirstpreparebycertaintreatments
that which is going to receive the dye, and then
apply the colour, whether it be purple or some
othershade,inthesamewaywillwe,iftheglory Divinization
ofthegoodisdestinedtoabidewithusasindelible,
thenunderstandthesacredandmysticalteachings
after we have received preliminary initiation by Philo’s goal to “know divine matters,” and the
those external [i.e. pagan] means. And like those aspiration of learned Christians to “know God,”
who have become accustomed to seeing the bothreflectaviewaboutphilosophythattracesits
[reflected]suninwater,sowillwedirectoureyes originstoPlato’sTheaetetus,whereSocratestells
tothelightitself.
his interlocutor Theodorus that “we must try to
The dominant theme here is that of “prepara- escapeasquicklyaspossiblefromheretothere,”
tion” for apprehension of the ideal: Our study of andthatthisescapeis“assimilationtogod,asfar
paganauthorshelpsustoprepareforthegreatest as possible” (176a–b). Assimilation to god, or
ofallstruggles.Paganliteratureisliketheunseen “divinization,” is an ideal that was understood
preparatory material that dyers use before they and sought indifferentways by differentancient
apply the glorious color that is the Holy Scrip- people.EarlyChristians,forinstance,couldstrive
tures; it provides a preliminary initiation, but the foritthroughlifeinthedesertorinthemonastery.
Scripturesaresacredmysteries.TheScripturesare For Platonists from the third century
the light itself; pagan literature is reflected light A.D. on – i.e., Plotinus and his Neoplatonist
thatpreparesustolookupontherealthing.These successors – divinization was the supreme goal,
imagesalltracetheiroriginbacktoPlato’sRepub- progresstowardswhichwasaffordedbythestudy
lic(Döring2003):the“eyeofthesoul”whichis oftexts.
raisedupthroughdialectic(533c–d),thesimileof Naturallyenough,thetextswhichtheystudied
dyers and their wool (429d–e), and the progress above all were the Platonic writings – not all of
fromthevisionofreflectedimagestocontempla- them but rather those that were considered most
tion of the light itself (515e–516b). Basil’s usefulandrelevanttotheirgoal.Onceagreement
assumptionisthatintelligible,unchangingreality wasreachedontheidentityofthesefundamental
iscontainedintheScriptures,notPlato’sworldof dialogues, two further developments occurred:
Forms;the“eyeofthesoul”gainsunderstanding certainscholars proposed the “correct” organiza-
oftheScripturesthroughascentupapedagogical tionandreadingorderofthesePlatonicwritings,
ladder.Basil’sworkwaswidelyreadandadmired andcommentariesoneachofthemwerewrittenin
throughout the Middle Ages where Greek was order to facilitate their study. The surviving
PhilosophicalIdealismandEducationalTheory 5
evidence for these reading orders shows a clear pp. 5–7). Yet it was central to Schleiermacher’s
desire to draw students progressively to works project, too, to determine the order in which the
thatdealwiththecontemplationoftranscendental dialogues were composed and should be read
being,inparticulartheTimaeusandtheParmen- (Lamm 2013). The sequence which he decreed
ides, which were (in that order) the final two in would find no acceptance from any Platonic
mostreadinglists(Koch2013;Tarrant2014).For scholar today, but Schleiermacher’s purpose was
asimilarreason,Platonistsalsoincludedsomeof apedagogicalone,andhissolutiondemonstrates
Aristotle’swritingsintheircurriculum,mostnota- the same concern that much earlier thinkers had
blytheCategoriesandMetaphysics. showntoraisethestudent’smindthroughdialec-
tictocontemplationoftheidealwhichtrulyexists.
IntheRepublic,whichisamongthelastdialogues
TheLaterTradition
thatSchleiermacherprescribed,thatobjectofcon-
templationis“theGood.”
ThroughouttheMiddleAges,arithmetic,geome- At about the same time that Schleiermacher’s
try,astronomy,andharmonicspreservedtheirrole translationswerefirstappearing,JohannGottlieb
as preparation for the study of philosophy and Fichte (1762–1814), follower and interpreter of
theology. Boethius (ca. 480–ca. 524), who had Immanuel Kant, published the Addresses to the
confidencethatthesesubjectscould leadthestu- GermanNationwhichhehaddeliveredinBerlin
dent to comprehension of what really exists, in 1806 when the city was under occupation by
appearstohavebeenthefirsttoapplythemedie- Napoleon. The second and third Addresses deal
val title quadrivium to this set of subjects directly with education. Fichte’s idealism
(TraininginArithmetic1). represented a radical development of Kant’s and
For350yearsafterthereintroductionofPlato’s isunmistakableinbothoftheseAddresses,espe-
worksintowesternEuropearound thebeginning ciallyinhisassertionofhumanfreedom.Obvious
ofthefifteenthcentury,“Platonism”impliedespe- tooistheinfluenceofPlatonicidealism.Onlyone
cially the emphases and preoccupations of the extract can be provided here, but many others,
Neoplatonistsoflateantiquity.Itisunsurprising, equally illustrative, could be presented without
therefore,tofindthatwhenthegreatRenaissance difficulty(Address3,29;trans.G.H.Turnbull):
humanist Marsilio Ficino came to select and
[Thestudent]isalinkintheeternalchainofspiri-
arrange the first ten works of Plato which he tuallifeinahighersocialorder.Atrainingwhich
would translate into Latin and later incorporate has undertaken to include the whole of his being
into his 1484 edition (the first printed edition of shouldundoubtedlyleadhimtoaknowledgeofthis
Plato’s complete works in any language), this higherorderalso.Justasitledhimtosketchoutfor
himselfbyhisownactivityanimageofthatmoral
selection and arrangement aimed to provide for world-orderwhichneveris,butalwaysistobe,so
the ascent of the reader’s mind to the vision of mustitleadhimtocreateinthoughtbythesame
God, just as the Neoplatonic sequences of late self-activityanimageofthatsupersensuousworld-
orderinwhichnothingbecomes,andwhichnever
antiquity had done (the Parmenides and the
hasbecome,butwhichsimplyisforever;allthisin
Philebus occupy the ninth and tenth places). suchawaythatheintimatelyunderstandsandper-
Ficinomakesthisintentionclearinhisprefaceto ceivesthatitcouldnotbeotherwise.Underproper
the 1464 collection of these ten works which he guidancehewillcompletehisattemptsatsuchan
addressedtoCosimode’Medici(Toussaint2013). image,andfindattheendthatnothingreallyexists
butlife,thespirituallifewhichlivesinthought,and
It is a common belief that the Neoplatonic thateverythingelsedoesnotreallyexist,butonly
interpretation of Plato lost its dominance as a appearstoexist.
resultofthetranslationsandexegesesofthedia-
Theeffectofphilosophicalidealismoneduca-
loguesbyFriedrichSchleiermacher(1768–1834).
tionaltheoryisapparentinother,mainlyGerman,
Thisbelief isoverstated,butthere isno question
thinkers of the past 250 years (especially Kant,
thatthesepublications(1804–28)didmarkaturn-
Hegel and Schelling). Nowhere, however, is it
ing point in the study of Plato (Tigerstedt 1974,
6 PhilosophicalIdealismandEducationalTheory
expressedsoforcefullyanddirectlyasitisinthese Döring,K.(2003).VomNutzenderheidnischenLiteratur
works, and never during this time did it exercise f€ur eine christliche Erziehung. Die Schrift Ad
such influence as it did on the development of adolescentes delegendis librisgentilium des Basilius
vonCaesarea.Gymnasium,110,551–567.
GermannationalismthroughFichte’sAddresses. Hadot, I. (2005). Arts libéraux et philosophie dans la
pensée antique: Contribution à l’histoire de
l’éducationetdelaculturedansl’Antiquité(2nded.).
Cross-References Paris:Vrin.
Koch, I. (2013). L’exégèse plotinienne des dialogues. In
A.Balansard&I.Koch(Eds.),Lirelesdialogues,mais
▶AnOverviewofEducationalTheorists lesquelsetdansquelordre?Définitionsducorpuset
▶FriedrichSchleiermacher interprétationsdePlaton(pp.59–83).SanktAugustin:
▶HegelonMoralDevelopmentandEducation AcademiaVerlag.
Lamm,J.A.(2013).Plato’sdialoguesasasingleworkof
▶IntellectualVirtuesandEducationalPractice art: Friedrich Schleiermacher’s Platons Werke. In
▶LiberalArtsEducation A. Balansard & I. Koch (Eds.), Lire les dialogues,
▶Nationalism, Curriculum, and the Making of maislesquelsetdansquelordre?Définitionsducorpus
et interprétations de Platon (pp. 173–188). Sankt
Citizens
Augustin:AcademiaVerlag.
▶PlatoandPhilosophyofEducation Tarrant, H. (2014). Platonist curricula and their influ-
▶Socratic Dialogue: A Comparison Between ence. In P. Remes & S. Slaveva-Griffin (Eds.), The
AncientandContemporaryMethod Routledge handbook of neoplatonism (pp. 15–29).
▶TheFormationofSchoolSubjects London/New York: Routledge.
Tigerstedt,E.N.(1974).Thedeclineandfalloftheneo-
platonicinterpretationofPlato:Anoutlineandsome
observations(Commentations,HumanarumLitterarum,
References vol.52).Helsinki:SocietasScientiarumFennica.
Toussaint,S.(2013).DeDialogorumcongruasuccessionis
serie:retoursurFicin,CosmeetPlaton.InA.Balansard
Annas, J. (1981). An introduction to Plato’s Republic.
&I.Koch(Eds.),Lirelesdialogues,maislesquelset
Oxford:OxfordUniversityPress. dansquelordre?Définitionsducorpusetinterpréta-
Bos, A. P. (1989). Cosmic and meta-cosmic theology in tionsdePlaton(pp.133–147).SanktAugustin:Aca-
Aristotle’s lost dialogues. Leiden/New York/
demiaVerlag.
København/Köln:Brill.
Cornford,F.M.(1932).Mathematicsanddialecticinthe
RepublicVI–VII.Mind,41,37–52,173–190.
P
Philosophical Idealism Plato
and Educational Theory
An ancient tradition records that above the
MarkJoyal entrance to Plato’s Academy was displayed the
UniversityofManitoba,Winnipeg,MB,Canada inscription,“Letnooneenterwhodoesnotknow
geometry.” The earliest surviving evidence for
thisinscriptionisinaworkbytheEmperorJulian
Introduction
(AgainstHeracliustheCynic237d),writtensome
750 years after Plato established his school, and
Among ancient discussions of Greek education, there is good cause to believe that the story is
philosophical idealism makes itsfirstappearance apocryphal. Nevertheless, the tradition reflects
in Plato’s Republic, within his formulation of an important realities about Plato, his philosophical
ideal state. Here the mathematical sciences and priorities,andhiseducationalgoalsbothintheory
dialectic are presented as affording the student a (inhis writings) andinpractice (intheAcademy
path to the apprehension of unmediated reality, itself). Drawing philosophical inspiration espe-
which,inPlatonictheory,iseducation’ssupreme cially from his Pythagorean predecessors, Plato
goal. Most subsequent discussion or activity looked to mathematical sciences (arithmetic,
among Greeks and Romans which attempts to planeandsolidgeometry,astronomy,harmonics)
integrate philosophical idealism either develops as providing the most compelling evidence for
or responds to Plato’s thinking on this subject. intelligible, immaterial, unchanging reality – the
Plato’s speculation also succeeded in finding transcendent“Forms,”whichheconsideredtobe
accommodationinmorewidespreadviewsabout thestudent’shighestobjectofstudy.
ancient educational curricula and in the thinking Plato describes and discusses his theory of
ofsomemoderneducationists. Forms in numerous dialogues, but it is in his
most famous work, the Republic, that he applies
their contemplation to the system of education
Synonyms which he formulates for his Utopian society.
Here, in Book 7, Socrates explains at length the
shapewhicheducationtakesforthe“Guardians”
Dialectic; Divinization; First principle; Idealism;
of this ideal society and the purpose of this edu-
Mathematics; Reading order; Reality; Theory of
cation(Annas1981,pp.272–293).TheGuardians
forms;Wisdom
havealreadycompletedtheirculturalandphysical
trainingwhentheycometothestudyofnumbers,
#SpringerScience+BusinessMediaSingapore2016
M.A.Peters(ed.),EncyclopediaofEducationalPhilosophyandTheory,
DOI10.1007/978-981-287-532-7_1-2
2 PhilosophicalIdealismandEducationalTheory
whichtheywillpursuetotheageof30.Thisstudy dialogueMeno(81e–85d).HereSocratesinterro-
servesthegeneralpurposeofdevelopingtheintel- gates a young, unschooled household slave who
lect and training people how to think, but much has no previous knowledge of mathematics.
more importantly (in Plato’s view) it turns the Through a long series of carefully framed ques-
mindawayfromourworld, theworld ofbecom- tions he leads the slave to the correct solution to
ing(genesis),towardstruthandreality(ousia),the the problem of doubling the area of a square.
worldofForms(525a–c).NumbersarenotForms, Socrates conducts the interrogation as one who
of course, but in our world of becoming their (like the slave) does not know the answer to the
study is the closest that we can come to Forms problem he has set, in other words, as an “intel-
themselves (Cornford 1932, pp. 38–39). The lectual midwife” who possesses no body of
orderinwhichthemathematicalsubjectsarestud- knowledge himself but is expert in bringing to
iedisimportanttoo.Arithmeticpreparestheway birththeintellectualoffspringconceivedbyothers
for geometry, which requires us to think in two (cf.Theaetetus150b–151c).Theinquiryisthere-
and three dimensions. Astronomy comes after foreviewedasanonempirical“commonsearch.”
geometry; now the student’s eyes are raised up Its success is achieved through a solution that is
fromtheearthtowardstheheavens.Thecelestial basednotonvariableopinion(doxa),aboutwhich
bodies, nevertheless, are material and of this people may well disagree, but on secure knowl-
world. The heavenly music which they create edge(epistêmê),whichisderivedfromimmutable
(originallyaPythagoreanbelief),however,brings numericaltruths.Dialectic,moreover,elevatesthe
us closer to immaterial reality, and it is direct, particular geometrical solution which Socrates
unmediated apprehension of reality that should coaxes from the slave to a general truth whose
bethegoalofeducation. existencedoesnotrelyonthesenses.
Just how can the student achieve this direct There are, then, two stages in the process by
contemplationofreal,unchanginggoodness,jus- which,toPlato’sthinking,thestudentmayappre-
tice,courage,andsoon?Toanswerthisquestion hendpurereality:first,thestudyofthemathemat-
Plato invoked his doctrine of anamnesis, “recol- ical sciences, and then, the learning and
lection,” which presupposes that the soul, in dis- application of dialectic (Cornford 1932,
carnate state, has had direct apprehension and pp.173–190).Weknowfromsurvivingevidence
knowledge of the Forms before a person’s birth. that the practice of dialectic – the processes of
Its subsequent incarnation and contact with the collection, division, and classification – was an
body cause the person in whom the soul has activitycentraltoPlato’sAcademy.
been embodied to forget this knowledge, but it
canbe“recollected”whenthispersonisgiventhe
Aristotle
right promptings, especially through skilful
questioning. A problem with the doctrine of
anamnesis, however, is that it explains why, not Inhisresearchandteaching,Aristotlepursuedthe
how,peopleareabletogainaccesstotheForms. dialectical activity of classification with great
Moreproblematicstillisthatthedoctrinerequires energy. As is well known, however, he broke
proof of the soul’s immortality. Plato therefore decisivelyfromhisteacherPlatobyrejectingthe
saw greater potential for explaining how the theoryofForms.UnlikePlato,hewasanempiri-
study of numbers could lead to apprehension of cist, unwilling to exclude the role of perception
reality in the application of dialectic (Republic andthesensesfromtheacquisitionofknowledge.
532a–535a), which Socrates calls “the capstone Aristotle observed that experience and memory
of the curriculum” (534e) (Annas 1981, enable us to collect related instances of things
pp.276–293). and events, and “from many notions that come
The use of dialectic to accomplish this goal fromexperience,oneuniversalsuppositionabout
(anditsconcomitantpotentialtoexemplifyrecol- similar things is produced” (Metaphysics
lection) is demonstrated most vividly in Plato’s 981a5–7). The procedure which leads to this
PhilosophicalIdealismandEducationalTheory 3
result is called induction; through its application for the preliminary stage of education, which
people are able to apprehend universals which, would later acquire the name enkyklios paideia,
whenanalyzed,yieldfirstprinciples.Butourdis- animportantdesignationoftentranslatedas“stan-
covery of first principles depends on sense per- dardeducation.”Theformerlogoiaretheconcern
ception,sodisputesmaybeexpectedtoariseover of advanced students, whose object of investiga-
theauthenticityofafirstprinciple.Inthesecases, tion would be philosophia, which is concerned
itisthetaskofdialectictodefend(ordisprove)its withtranscendent,theologicalprinciples.
authenticity (Topics 101a25–b4). According to
Aristotle, the knowledge of first principles and
first causes is “clearly” sophia, i.e., “wisdom” LaterPlatonistsandEarlyChristians
(Metaphysics981b25–982a3).
The fact that Aristotle refused toendow these ItremainsdifficulttodeterminehowfarAristotle
firstprincipleswiththeirownseparateexistenceis may have been dependent upon Plato – even if
offundamentalimportanceforunderstandinghis only by reaction against him – in formulating an
breakfromPlatoandtheirdisagreementoverthe educational curriculum which was designed to
goalofeducation.ForPlato,apprehensionoffirst bringthestudenttothecontemplationofimmate-
principles – of his Forms, in other words – is rial existence. About numerous other ancient
impossible when the soul is incarnate, since it is thinkers, however, we need not be in any doubt
thenincontactwiththebody,whichisimplicated (Hadot 2005, pp. 263–293). For instance,
in fallible sense perceptions. For Aristotle, it is the Alexandrian (Jewish) Platonist Philo
onlythroughthesenseorgansthatfirstprinciples (ca. 25 B.C.–ca. A.D. 40), best known for his
canbeapprehended. commentaries on the Pentateuch, often referred
Precisely where Aristotle’s thinking on ideals toenkykliospaideia,especiallythemathematical
belongs in his educational activity is far from sciences,asanimportantbutpreliminarystagein
clear, but the evidence of ancient commentators the curriculum, subordinate to the pursuit of
onhisworks(writingmainlybetweenthesecond philosophia; hence his characterization of this
and the sixth centuries A.D.) may provide some early stage as the “handmaid of wisdom”
help. Some of these commentators distinguished (Intercourse with the Preliminary Subjects
two kinds of Aristotelian writings, the exoterikoi 73–76). Yet just as enkyklios paideia contributes
and the enkyklioi “discussions” or “arguments” to the pursuit of philosophy, so philosophy then
(logoi). Just what the adjectives exoterikoi and contributestothepossessionofwisdom(sophia),
enkyklioi refer to in these phrases is open to which is the knowledge of divine and human
some basic disagreement. Many have believed mattersandtheircauses(79).ClementofAlexan-
that exoterikoi logoi are popular works which dria(ca.150–ca.215)adoptedPhilo’sevaluation
Aristotle intended for wider consumption, espe- of the relative places of enkyklios paideia,
cially philosophical dialogues not unlike Plato’s, philosophia, and sophia (even quoting Philo),
whereasenkyklioilogoiareworkswhichwerenot but Clement went further by defining wisdom as
meant for publication but, being of a more tech- “knowing God” (Miscellanies 1.5.30.1–2).
nicalnature,reflecttheteachingwhichtookplace Lactantius (ca. 240–320) characterized wisdom
inhisschool.Butthereareflawsinthisargument, inasimilarwaybutdeniedthatthepathtosophia
andanalternative proposalhasbeenputforward ranthroughphilosophia,since“knowingGod”is
(Bos 1989, pp. 111–152): exoterikoi logoi are somethingthatallpeople–notonlyphilosophers
discussions which deal with the things outside but “workmen, peasants, women, and all who
(taexo)thephysicalrealm,whileenkyklioilogoi have human form” – are capable of by nature,
deal with physical reality, the things within (en) andthesepeopleshouldthereforereceiveinstruc-
the circle (kyklos) of the universe. These latter tion(TheDivineInstructions3.25–26).
logoi, being nearer to the experience to which The opinions on education of St. Basil of
people can easily relate, are the subject matter Caesarea (329/330–379) demonstratea profound
4 PhilosophicalIdealismandEducationalTheory
ChristianengagementwithPlato’swritingonthe understood;fromthefifteenthcenturyonitgained
subjectanddeservespecialattention.Earlyinhis enormous popularity in western Europe through
essayTotheyoung,onhowtheymaybenefitfrom the Latin translation of Leonardo Bruni
pagan literature (2), delivered ostensibly before (1370–1444).
anaudienceofyouths,Basilmakesabasicpoint St.Augustine(354–430)similarlybelievedthat
emphatically: Christiansconsiderthislifeandits theproductsofpaganlearningcouldbepresented
goods to be nothing, and believe the soul to be to students in order to prepare them to acquire
infinitelymorevaluablethanthebody. knowledgeof“theoneGodhimself”(OnChristian
Teaching 144). The liberal arts, especially the
Solongasyouareunable,becauseofyourage,to
understandthedepthoftheHolyScriptures’mean- mathematical subjects, condition the student for
ing, in the meantime ... we give a preliminary contemplation of higher things (On Order
trainingtotheeyeofthesoul....Wemustrecog- 2.12–16). The influence of Plato, crucial in
nizethatacontestissetbeforeus,thegreatestofall Augustine’s conversion to Christianity
contests, to prepare for which we must do every-
thingandperformeverytask,asfaraswecan,and (Confessions Bks. 7–8), is evident everywhere in
we must associate with [the writings of] poets, hiswritings.LikeBasil,heappliedPlato’simageof
prose-writers,orators,andallmenfromwhomwe “theeyeofthesoul”todescribetheapprehension
arelikelytoderivesomebenefitforthecareofthe
ofintelligiblereality(VariousQuestions46.2).
soul.Justasdyersfirstpreparebycertaintreatments
that which is going to receive the dye, and then
apply the colour, whether it be purple or some
othershade,inthesamewaywillwe,iftheglory Divinization
ofthegoodisdestinedtoabidewithusasindelible,
thenunderstandthesacredandmysticalteachings
after we have received preliminary initiation by Philo’s goal to “know divine matters,” and the
those external [i.e. pagan] means. And like those aspiration of learned Christians to “know God,”
who have become accustomed to seeing the bothreflectaviewaboutphilosophythattracesits
[reflected]suninwater,sowillwedirectoureyes originstoPlato’sTheaetetus,whereSocratestells
tothelightitself.
his interlocutor Theodorus that “we must try to
The dominant theme here is that of “prepara- escapeasquicklyaspossiblefromheretothere,”
tion” for apprehension of the ideal: Our study of andthatthisescapeis“assimilationtogod,asfar
paganauthorshelpsustoprepareforthegreatest as possible” (176a–b). Assimilation to god, or
ofallstruggles.Paganliteratureisliketheunseen “divinization,” is an ideal that was understood
preparatory material that dyers use before they and sought indifferentways by differentancient
apply the glorious color that is the Holy Scrip- people.EarlyChristians,forinstance,couldstrive
tures; it provides a preliminary initiation, but the foritthroughlifeinthedesertorinthemonastery.
Scripturesaresacredmysteries.TheScripturesare For Platonists from the third century
the light itself; pagan literature is reflected light A.D. on – i.e., Plotinus and his Neoplatonist
thatpreparesustolookupontherealthing.These successors – divinization was the supreme goal,
imagesalltracetheiroriginbacktoPlato’sRepub- progresstowardswhichwasaffordedbythestudy
lic(Döring2003):the“eyeofthesoul”whichis oftexts.
raisedupthroughdialectic(533c–d),thesimileof Naturallyenough,thetextswhichtheystudied
dyers and their wool (429d–e), and the progress above all were the Platonic writings – not all of
fromthevisionofreflectedimagestocontempla- them but rather those that were considered most
tion of the light itself (515e–516b). Basil’s usefulandrelevanttotheirgoal.Onceagreement
assumptionisthatintelligible,unchangingreality wasreachedontheidentityofthesefundamental
iscontainedintheScriptures,notPlato’sworldof dialogues, two further developments occurred:
Forms;the“eyeofthesoul”gainsunderstanding certainscholars proposed the “correct” organiza-
oftheScripturesthroughascentupapedagogical tionandreadingorderofthesePlatonicwritings,
ladder.Basil’sworkwaswidelyreadandadmired andcommentariesoneachofthemwerewrittenin
throughout the Middle Ages where Greek was order to facilitate their study. The surviving