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ENCYCLOPEDIA OF EARTH SCIENCES SERIES ENCYCLOPEDIA of SOIL SCIENCE edited by WARD CHESWORTH University of Guelph Canada ENCYCLOPEDIA of SOIL SCIENCE AC.I.P.Cataloguerecordforthisbookisavailable fromtheLibraryof Congress. ISBN:978-1-4020-3994-2 SpringerDordrecht,Berlin,Heidelberg,NewYork Thispublicationisavailablealsoas: Electronic publicationunderISBN978-1-4020-3995-9 and PrintandelectronicbundleunderISBN978-1-4020-5127-2 Published bySpringer POBox17,3300AADordrecht,TheNetherlands Printed onacid-freepaper Coverphoto:MountOlga(Katatjula),25kmwestofAyersRock(reproducedcourtesyofGettyImages,image55862814,photographer:DAJ). Everyefforthas beenmade tocontact thecopyright holdersof thefigures andtableswhichhavebeenreproducedfrom othersources. Anyone who has not been properly credited is requested to contact the publishers, so that due acknowledgement may be made in subsequenteditions. AllRights Reserved ã2008Springer Encyclopedia of Earth Sciences Series ENCYCLOPEDIA OF SOIL SCIENCE VolumeEditor Ward Chesworth is Professor Emeritus of Geochemistry at the University of Guelph, Ontario, Canada. He co-edited Weathering, Soils andPaleosols,andthreevolumesoftheannualHammondLectureSeriesbroadcastinpartbytheCanadianBroadcastingCorporation: MalthusandtheThirdMillennium,SustainableDevelopment,andTheHumanEcologicalFootprint.Heco-wrotePerspectivesonCanadian Geology.In2003hereceivedtheHalboutyPrizeoftheGeologicalSocietyofAmerica,ofwhichheisaFellow. Advisory Board RichardW.Arnold JohnsonSemoka NaturalResourcesConservationService SokoineUniversityof Agriculture USDepartmentof Agriculture Morogono,Tanzania Washington,DC,USA AriehSinger CharlesW.Finkl TheHebrewUniversity ofJerusalem Coastal Planning&Engineering, Inc. Rehovot,Israel CPECoastal Geology&Geomatics YoongK.Soon BocaRaton,Florida,USA Agriculture andAgri-Food Canada Alberta,Canada AntonioMartínezCortizas FacultaddeBiología OttoSpaargaren UniversidadedeSantiagodeCompostela WorldDataCentreforSoils Spain Wageningen,TheNetherlands GaryParkin FelipeMacías Vázquez DepartmentofLandResource Science FacultaddeBiología University ofGuelph UniversidadedeSantiagodeCompostela Ontario,Canada Spain AimsoftheSeries The Encyclopedia of Earth Sciences Series provides comprehensive and authoritative coverage of all the main areas in the Earth Sciences. Each volume comprises a focused and carefully chosen collection of contributions from leading names in the subject, with copiousillustrations andreference lists. Thesebooksrepresentoneoftheworld’sleadingresourcesfortheEarthSciencescommunity.Previousvolumesarebeingupdatedand newworkspublishedsothatthevolumeswillcontinuetobeessentialreadingforallprofessionalearthscientists,geologists,geophysi- cists,climatologists,andoceanographersaswellasforteachersandstudents.Seethebackofthisvolumeforacurrentlistoftitlesinthe EncyclopediaofEarthSciencesSeries.Gotohttp://www.springerlink.com/reference-works/ tovisitthe“EarthSciencesSeries”on-line. AbouttheEditors ProfessorCharlesW.Finklhaseditedand/orcontributedtomorethan8volumesintheEncyclopediaofEarthSciencesSeries.Forthe past25yearshehasbeentheExecutiveDirectoroftheCoastalEducation&ResearchFoundationandEditor-in-Chiefoftheinternational JournalofCoastalResearch.Inadditiontotheseduties,heisPrincipalMarineGeologistwithCoastalPlanning&Engineering,Inc.and ResearchProfessoratFloridaAtlanticUniversityinBocaRaton,Florida,USA.HeisagraduateoftheUniversityofWesternAustralia (Perth)andpreviouslyworkedforawhollyownedAustralian subsidiary of the International Nickel Company of Canada (INCO). During his career, he acquired field experience in Australia;theCaribbean;SouthAmerica;SWPacificislands;southernAfrica;WesternEurope; andthePacificNorthwest,Midwest,andSoutheastUSA. ProfessorMichaelRampinohaspublishedmorethan100papersinprofessionaljournalsincludingScience,Nature,andScientificAmerican.He hasworkedinsuchdiversefieldsasvolcanology,planetaryscience,sedimentology,andclimatestudies,andhasdonefieldworkonsixcon- tinents.HeiscurrentlyAssociateProfessorofEarthandEnvironmentalSciencesatNewYorkUniversityandaconsultantatNASA’sGoddard InstituteforSpaceStudies. FoundingSeriesEditor ProfessorRhodesW.Fairbridge{haseditedmorethan24EncyclopediasintheEarthSciencesSeries.Duringhiscareerhehasworkedas apetroleumgeologistintheMiddleEast,beenaWWIIintelligenceofficerintheSWPacificandledexpeditionstotheSahara,Arctic Canada,ArcticScandinavia,BrazilandNewGuinea.HewasEmeritusProfessorofGeologyatColumbiaUniversityandwasaffiliated with theGoddardInstitute forSpaceStudies. Contents List of Contributors xvii Agroecology 33 Preface xxv Agroecosystem 33 A Horizon 1 Agrogeology 33 Nikola Kostic Abiotic 1 Agronomy 35 Abrasion 1 Albeluvisols 35 Abrupt Textural Change 1 Otto Spaargaren Absorption 1 Alisols 35 Otto Spaargaren Acid Deposition Effects on Soils 2 Randy A. Dahlgren Alkali 37 Acid Soils 7 Alkaline Soils 37 Felipe Macías Vázquez, Marta Camps Arbestain, Ward Chesworth, Felipe Macías Vázquez, and Ward Chesworth and Marta Camps Arbestain Acid Sulfate Soils 10 Alkalization 39 Acidity 10 Allitization 39 Wayne P. Robarge Allogenic 39 Acids, Alkalis, Bases and pH 21 Alluvium 39 Acrisols 22 Felipe Macías Vázquez Andosols 39 Olafur Arnalds Activity Ratios 24 Bryon W. Bache Anthropogenic 46 Adobe 27 Anthrosols 47 Otto Spaargaren Adsorption 27 Arenosols 48 Aggregate 28 Otto Spaargaren Aggregate Stability to Drying and Wetting 28 Argillaceous 49 W. W. Emerson Argillan 49 Aggregation 30 Roger Hartmann Arid 49 Agrichemical 33 Arrhenius' Equation 49 Entries without author names are glossary terms vi CONTENTS Association 50 Blanket 69 Auger 50 Blowout 69 Authigenic 50 Bog 69 Azonal Soil 50 Boreal Forest 69 B Horizon 51 Boulder 69 Background 51 Brunification 69 Badlands 51 Buffers, Buffering 70 Carlo Gessa Barchan 51 Bulk Density 74 Barrens 51 David T. Lewis Base 51 Buried Soil 75 Base Level 51 C Horizon 77 Base Saturation 52 Calcareous Soils 77 Bryon W. Bache Ward Chesworth, Marta Camps Arbestain, and Felipe Macías Vázquez Basement 55 Calcisols 79 Basic 55 Otto Spaargaren Basin 55 Cambisols 80 Otto Spaargaren Beach 55 Capability 81 Bed 55 Capillary Pressure 81 Bedrock 55 Y. Mualem and H. J. Morel-Seytoux Bench 55 Carbon Cycling and Formation of Soil Organic 91 Berm 55 Matter William R. Horwath Biodegradation 55 Carbon Sequestration in Soil 97 Biodiversity 55 Gonzalo Almendros Biogeochemical Cycles 56 Carbonates 99 Ward Chesworth Ward Chesworth Biomass 60 Catchment 101 Biome 60 Catena 101 Biomes and their Soils 61 Cation Exchange 102 Ward Chesworth Cement 102 Bioremediation 68 Cheluviation 102 Biosequence 68 Chemical Analyses 102 Biospheric Role of Soil 68 Paul R. Grossl and Donald L. Sparks Biostasis 69 Chemical Composition 108 Biotic 69 Chemisorption 108 Bisiallitization 69 Chernozems 108 Otto Spaargaren Black Cotton Soil 69 Chronology of Soils 109 Black Earth 69 Rhodes W. Fairbridge CONTENTS vii Chronosequence 111 Conservation 168 Ward Chesworth and David M. Lavigne Classification of Soils: FAO 111 Arieh Singer Consistence 170 Classification of Soils: Soil Taxonomy 113 Consolidation 170 Hari Eswaran Contour 170 Classification of Soils: World Reference 120 Base (WRB) for Soil Resources Cordillera 171 Erika Micheli Corrasion 171 Classification of Soils: World Reference 122 Corrosion 171 Base (WRB) Soil Profiles Otto Spaargaren Craton 171 Clastic 122 Creep 171 Clay Mineral Alteration in Soils 122 Critical Load 171 P. M. Huang Crotovina 171 Clay Mineral Formation 135 Arieh Singer Crusts, Crusting 171 Marcello Pagliai Clay Mineral Structures 141 Cryopedology 179 Clay Minerals: Silicates 141 Charles E. Weaver Cryosols 179 Otto Spaargaren Clay-Organic Interactions 144 B. K. G. Theng Cryoturbation 181 Climate 150 Cuesta 181 Climosequence 150 Cultivation 182 Coastal Soils 150 Cumulization 182 Colloid 151 Cutan 182 Colluvium 151 Datum Level 183 Comminution 151 Debris 183 Compaction 151 Degradation 183 Iain M. Young Complex Soil 153 Delta 183 Compost 153 Denitrification 183 Computer Modeling 153 Desalinization 184 Keith Paustian Desert 184 Computerized Tomography 159 Richard J. Heck Desertification 184 Concretion 160 Desiccation 184 Conductivity, Electrical 161 Desilication 184 Charles W. Finkl Detritus 185 Conductivity, Hydraulic 162 Herman Bouwer Diffusion 185 Conductivity, Thermal 165 Diffusion Processes 185 Amos Hadas Siobhán Staunton Entries without author names are glossary terms viii CONTENTS Dispersion 191 Epigenous 216 Dissection 191 Erosion 216 Rhodes W. Fairbridge Dissolved Material 191 Erratic 221 Divide 191 Escarpment 221 Doline 191 Esker 222 Drainage 192 Eutrophication 222 Drumlin 192 Evaporation 222 Dry Deposition 192 R. J. Hanks and G. E. Cardon Dune 192 Evapotranspiration 224 Duricrusts and Induration 192 Evolution 224 Rhodes W. Fairbridge Exchange Complex 224 Durisols 198 Otto Spaargaren Exchange Phenomena 224 Robert G. Gast Dust 198 Exfoliation 227 E Horizon 199 Exogene 227 Earth Cycles 199 Rhodes W. Fairbridge Extract 227 Ecology 202 F Horizon 229 Edaphic 202 Fabric 229 Edaphic Constraints on Food Production 202 Factors of Soil Formation 229 FriedrichH.Beinroth,HariEswaran,andPaulF.Reich Carlota Garcia Paz and Teresa Taboada Rodríguez Edaphology 207 Fallout 231 Effective 207 Fallow 231 Effluent 207 Family 231 Electrical Double Layer 207 Fan 231 Electrochemistry 207 Fauna 231 Electro-Osmosis 207 Valerie M. Behan-Pelletier and Stuart B. Hill Elutriation 207 Fen 237 Eluviation 207 Ferralitic 237 Endogenous 207 Ferralitization 237 Energy Balance 208 Ferralsols 237 Gaylon S. Campbell Pablo Vidal-Torrado and Miguel Cooper Envelope-Pressure Potential 210 Ferran 240 Pieter H. Groenevelt Ferri-Argillan 240 Environment 210 Ferrods 241 Enzyme Activity 210 Ferrolysis 241 Enzymes and Proteins, Interactions with 210 Soil-Constituent Surfaces Fersiallitization 241 Hervé Quiquampoix Fertilizer Raw Materials 241 Eolian 216 Peter van Straaten CONTENTS ix Fertilizers, Inorganic 247 Gleysols 299 J. J. Oertli Otto Spaargaren Fertilizers, Organic 263 Gossan 300 C. Wesley Wood Groundwater 301 Fibric, Hemic and Sapric 270 Guano 301 Field Capacity 270 Gully 301 Field pH 271 L. R. Hossner Gypsan 301 Field Water Cycle 272 Gypsisols 301 William O. Rasmussen Otto Spaargaren Flocculation 275 H Horizon 303 W. O. Williamson Halomorphic 303 Flood Plain 278 Hardening 303 Flow Theory 278 H. Magdi Selim Hardpan 303 Fluvial 280 Harrow 303 Fluviolacustrine 281 Health 303 Fluvisols 281 Health Problems and Soil 304 Otto Spaargaren J. Lag Folic 282 Heat Capacity 305 Amos Hadas Fragipan 282 Heath 307 Frigid 282 History of Soil Science 307 Frost Action 282 Rhodes W. Fairbridge Fulvic Acid 282 Histosols 312 J. C. Nóvoa Muñoz, X. Pontevedra Pombal, Furrow 282 and A. Martínez Cortizas Gabion 283 Hoodoo 314 Gelifluction 283 Horizon 314 Geochemistry in Soil Science 283 Horizon Designations in the Wrb 314 Garrison Sposito Humic Substances 315 Geography of Soils 289 Gonzalo M. Almendros Ward Chesworth and L. J. Evans Humid 323 Geology and Soils 292 Ward Chesworth Hummock 323 Gilgai 298 Hydric Soils 323 W. Chesworth, M. Camps Arbestain, F. Macías, Glacial 298 and A. Martínez Cortizas Glaciation 298 Hydrological Cycle 325 Ward Chesworth Glaciofluvial 299 Hydromorphic 328 Glaciolacustrine 299 Hydrophilicity, Hydrophobicity 328 Gley 299 William F. Jaynes Entries without author names are glossary terms