Encyclopedia of Caves

1240 Pages·2019·55.207 MB·English

by  William B. White, David C. Culver, Tanja Pipan (ed.)

Encyclopedia of Caves
Encyclopedia of Caves
Third Edition
Edited by
William B. White
The Pennsylvania State University, University Park, PA, United States
David C. Culver
American University, Washington, DC, United States
Tanja Pipan
Karst Research Institute, Scientific Research Centre of the Slovenian
Academy of Sciences and Arts (ZRC-SAZU), Slovenia
AcademicPressisanimprintofElsevier
125LondonWall,LondonEC2Y5AS,UnitedKingdom
525BStreet,Suite1650,SanDiego,CA92101,UnitedStates
50HampshireStreet,5thFloor,Cambridge,MA02139,UnitedStates
TheBoulevard,LangfordLane,Kidlington,OxfordOX51GB,UnitedKingdom
Copyright©2019ElsevierInc.Allrightsreserved.
Nopartofthispublicationmaybereproducedortransmittedinanyformorbyanymeans,electronicormechanical,including
photocopying,recording,oranyinformationstorageandretrievalsystem,withoutpermissioninwritingfromthepublisher.Detailson
howtoseekpermission,furtherinformationaboutthePublisher’spermissionspoliciesandourarrangementswithorganizationssuch
astheCopyrightClearanceCenterandtheCopyrightLicensingAgency,canbefoundatourwebsite:www.elsevier.com/permissions.
This book and the individual contributions contained in it are protected under copyright by the Publisher (other than as may be
noted herein).
Notices
Knowledgeandbestpracticeinthisfieldareconstantlychanging.Asnewresearchandexperiencebroadenourunderstanding,
changesinresearchmethods,professionalpractices,ormedicaltreatmentmaybecomenecessary.
Practitionersandresearchersmustalwaysrelyontheirownexperienceandknowledgeinevaluatingandusinganyinformation,
methods,compounds,orexperimentsdescribedherein.Inusingsuchinformationormethodstheyshouldbemindfuloftheirownsafety
andthesafetyofothers,includingpartiesforwhomtheyhaveaprofessionalresponsibility.
Tothefullestextentofthelaw,neitherthePublishernortheauthors,contributors,oreditors,assumeanyliabilityforanyinjuryand/or
damagetopersonsorpropertyasamatterofproductsliability,negligenceorotherwise,orfromanyuseoroperationofanymethods,
products,instructions,orideascontainedinthematerialherein.
LibraryofCongressCataloging-in-PublicationData
AcatalogrecordforthisbookisavailablefromtheLibraryofCongress
BritishLibraryCataloguing-in-PublicationData
AcataloguerecordforthisbookisavailablefromtheBritishLibrary
ISBN978-0-12-814124-3
ForinformationonallAcademicPresspublications
visitourwebsiteathttps://www.elsevier.com/books-and-journals
Publisher:CandiceJanco
AcquisitionEditor:AmyShapiro
EditorialProjectManager:SusanIkeda
ProductionProjectManager:PaulPrasadChandramohan
CoverDesigner:MarkRogers
TypesetbySPiGlobal,India
Contents By Subject Area
Types of caves Water chemistryin caves
Water tracing inkarstaquifers
Anchihaline (anchialine) caves and fauna
Cave, definitionof
Speleothems and other cave deposits
Costalcaves
Glacier caves Gypsumflowersand related speleothems
Gypsum caves Helictites andrelatedspeleothems
Hydrothermal caves Karren, cave
Iron formation caves: genesis and ecology Minerals incaves
Quartzite and quartz sandstone caves ofSouth America Speleothem deposition
Solution caves inregions ofhigh relief Speleothems
Solution caves inregions ofmoderate relief Stalactites and stalagmites
Sulfuricacid caves
Volcanic rock caves
Cave ages and paleoclimate
Cave features Datingcave sediments with cosmogenic nuclides
Magnetism of cave sediments
Breakdown
Paleoclimaterecords from speleothems
Clasticsediments incaves
Time markersin landscapeevolution, caves as
Entrances
Uraniumseries dating of cave sediments
Ice incaves
Karren,cave
Passagegrowthanddevelopment Exceptional caves
Scallops
BurnsvilleCove,Virginia
Castleguard Cave, Canada
Surface karst features
The FrasassiCaves, Italy
Friars Hole System, West Virginia
Closeddepressions inkarst areas
Dinaric karst – geographyand geology HangSonDoongandothercavesofthePhongNha-KẻBa`ng
Karst,Quảng B`ınh Province, Vietnam
Karren,surface
HuautlaCavesystem (Sistema Huautla), Mexico
Karst
Jewel Cave, SouthDakota
Pseudokarst
KazumuraCave,Hawaii
Sinkholes
Krubera (Voronja) Cave
Springs
Lechuguilla Cave,New Mexico
Submarinespringsincoastal karst
MammothCavesystem, Kentucky
Tiankeng,definition of
MuluCaves, Malaysia
Wetlandsin cave and karst regions
Nullarbor Caves, Australia
Postojna-Planina Cave System, Slovenia
Hydrology and hydrogeology
The Omega Cave system
Epikarst Siebenhengste Cave system, Switzerland
Hydrogeology ofkarst aquifers Ukrainegiantgypsum caves
Isotopes incave watersand cave sediments Underwater caves ofthe Yucatan Peninsula
Modeling ofkarst aquifers Vjetrenica Cave, Bosnia and Hercegovina
Speleogenesis, hypogene Wakulla Spring underwater cave system, Florida
Speleogenesis, telogenetic Xe BangFai Cave, Laos
xxiii
xxiv ContentsBySubjectArea
Groundwater contamination and land-use White Nose Syndrome—a fungal disease of North American
hazards in cave regions hibernating bats
Worms
Contaminationof cave waters by heavy metals
Contaminationof cave waters by nonaqueousphase liquids
Communities and habitats
Nitrate contamination ofkarstgroundwater
Cave ecosystems
Historical use of caves Epikarst communities
Guano communities
Ancient cavers ineastern NorthAmerica
Lampenflora
Art inEuropean caves
Shalllow subterranean habitats
Cave dwellers inSouthwest Asia
Folklore, myth, and legend, caves in
History: caves and other underground spaces in medieval
Ecology
Britain andIreland
Maya caves Chemolithoautotrophy
Saltpeter caves Ecological and evolutionary classifications of subterranean
organisms
Contemporary use of caves Food sources
Life histories
Caver communities and organizations: cultural and historical
Niphargus—amodelsystem for evolution andecology
considerations
Species interactions
Environmental DNA asa conservation tool
Protecting cave life
Protecting caves Biogeography and dispersal
Recreationalcaving
Asellus aquaticus—a model system for historical bioge-
Show caves
ography
Vicariance and dispersal incaves
Exploration of caves
Camps
Diversity
Documentation anddatabases
Exploration ofcaves—general
Biodiversity patterns inAustralia
Exploration ofcaves—underwater explorationtechniques
Biodiversity inChina
Exploration ofcaves—vertical exploration techniques
Biodiversity inEurope
Geophysics for locating karstandcaves
Biodiversity inthe tropics
Surveying caves
Biodiversity inthe United States andCanada
Biodiversity inSouth America
Biology of particular organisms in caves
Mapping subterranean biodiversity
Bats
Beetles
Evolution and adaptation
Cavefishes
Cavefish ofChina Adaptationto low food
Collembola Adaptations: low oxygen
Crustacea Adaptationto darkness
Mammals and birds—vertebrate visitors Adaptations: behavior
Microbes Adaptations: morphological
Molluscs Adaptationand naturalselection incaves
Myriapods Adaptive shifts
Orthoptera Astyanax mexicanus—a model system of evolution, adap-
Paleontology ofcaves tation, and development
Salamanders Gammarusminus—amodelsystemforthestudyofadaptation
Spiders and relatedgroups tothe cave environment
Contributors
Numbers in paraentheses indicate the pages on which the authors’ Mary C. Christman (678), MCC Statistical Consulting,
contrbutionsbegin. Gainesville, FL, United States
Arrigo A.Cigna (909), UnionInternationalede Sp(cid:2)el(cid:2)eologie,
KevinAllred(619),HawaiiSpeleologicalSurvey,SantaCruz
Postojna, Slovenia
de LaPalma,Spain
Gregg S. Clemmer (195,207), Butler Cave Conservation
BarbaraAnneamEnde(459,1128),DeepCavesConsulting,
Society,Inc., Williamsville, VA, United States
Albuquerque, NM, United States
JamesG. Coke (1089),Kent,OH, United States
Darlene M. Anthony (1077), Roane State Community
Annalisa K. Contos (761), University of Sydney, Cam-
College, Harriman,TN, United States
perdown, NSW, Australia
Augusto S. Auler (559,850), Instituto do Carste; Carste
Ci^encia eMeioAmbiente, Belo Horizonte,Brazil George Crothers (65), University of Kentucky, Lexington,
KY, UnitedStates
MichelBakalowicz(394,1049),HydroSciences,Universityof
David C. Culver (136,255,376,399,896,1156), American
Montpellier, Montpellier, France
University, Washington, DC, United States
CraigM.Barnes(761),UniversityofSydney,Camperdown,
Donald G. Davis (514), National Speleological Society,
NSW,Australia
Huntsville,AL, United States
HazelA.Barton(559),DepartmentofBiology,Universityof
Louis Deharveng (136,146), Mus(cid:2)eum National d’Histoire
Akron, Akron, OH, United States
Naturelle, Paris,France
Ofer Bar-Yosef (218), Harvard University, Cambridge, MA,
TeoDeli(cid:2)c(967),UniversityofLjubljana,Ljubljana,Slovenia
United States
Anne Bedos (146), Mus(cid:2)eum National d’Histoire Naturelle, RhawnF.Denniston(784),CornellCollege,MtVernon,IA,
UnitedStates
Paris, France
Wolfgang Dreybrodt (717,996), University of Bremen,
Maria E. Bichuette (227), Universidade Federal de Sa˜o
Bremen,Germany
Carlos, Sa˜o Carlos, Brazil
YvonneDroms(420),U.S.DeepCavingTeam,Linville,VA,
Ronny Boch (1096), Graz University of Technology, Graz,
UnitedStates
Austria
Yuri Dublyansky (546), Innsbruck University, Innsbruck,
Terry Bolger (1185), Cave & Karst Specialist, Vientiane,
Austria
Laos
ElzbietaDumnicka(1175),InstituteofNatureConservation,
James E. Brady (686), California State University, Los
PolishAcademy ofSciences, Krako´w,Poland
Angeles,CA, UnitedStates
Lee F. Elliott (71), Karst Waters Institute, Leesburg, VA,
Anton Brancelj (399), National Institute of Biology, Lju-
UnitedStates
bljana, Slovenia
AnnetteSummersEngel(267,691),UniversityofTennessee,
RogerW.Brucker(669),CaveResearchFoundation,Laurel,
Knoxville, TN, United States
MD, UnitedStates
Derek Fabel (348), Scottish Universities Environmental
Codi M. Bure (1165), Arizona State University, Mesa, AZ,
ResearchCentre,East Kilbride, UnitedKingdom
United States
Arnaud Faille (102), State Museum of Natural History,
Prosanta Chakrabarty (227), Louisiana State University,
Stuttgart, Germany
Baton Rouge, LA, UnitedStates
Dante B. Fenolio (227,871), San Antonio Zoo, San Antonio,
Weihai Chen (1071), Institute of Karst Geology, Chinese
TX, United States
Academyof GeologicalSciences, Beijing, China
xxv
xxvi Contributors
Rodrigo Lopes Ferreira (474), Departamento de Biologia, Fr(cid:2)ed(cid:2)eric Hervant (8), UMR CNRS 5023, Laboratory of
Universidade Federal de Lavras, Lavras, Brazil Ecology of Natural and Man-Impacted Hydrosystems,
ZˇigaFisˇer(1),DepartmentofBiology,BiotechnicalFaculty, University Lyon 1, Universit(cid:2)e of Lyon, Villeurbanne,
France
UniversityofLjubljana, Ljubljana, Slovenia
Carol A. Hill (1053), University of New Mexico, Albu-
Cene Fisˇer (33,652,746,967), University of Ljubljana, Lju-
querque,NM,United States
bljana, Slovenia
Horton H. Hobbs III (163), Wittenberg University, Spring-
DanielW.Fong(429,451),DepartmentofBiology,American
field, OH, UnitedStates
University,Washington, DC,UnitedStates
CatoHoller(836),CarolinaCaveSurvey,Marion,NC,United
Derek Ford (212), McMaster University, Hamilton, ON,
States
Canada
Francis G. Howarth (47), Bishop Museum Honolulu, Han-
Andrew G. Fountain (468), Portland State University,
neloreHochandAndreasWessel,Museumf€urNaturkunde,
Portland, OR, United States
Berlin, Germany
®
S. Beth Fratesi (710), Southwest Research Institute , San
DavidA.Hubbard,Jr.(885),VirginiaSpeleologicalSurvey,
Antonio, TX, United States
Charlottesville,VA, UnitedStates
Markus Friedrich (16), Department of Biological Sciences,
William F. Humphreys (109), University of Western Aus-
WayneStateUniversity;DepartmentofAnatomyandCell
tralia, Crawley, WA,Australia
Biology, Wayne State University, School of Medicine,
Detroit, MI, United States Julia M. James (761), University of Sydney, Camperdown,
NSW, Australia
SilviaFrisia(1041),TheUniversityofNewcastle,Callaghan,
NSW, Australia Pierre-YvesJeannin(922),SwissInstituteforSpeleologyand
Karst Studies, La Chaux-de-Fonds,Switzerland
Franci Gabrovsˇek (989), Karst Research Institute ZRC
SAZU, Postojna, Slovenia William R. Jeffery (85), University of Maryland, College
Park, MD, United States
DianaM.P.Galassi(435),UniversityofL’Aquila,L’Aquila,
Italy William K. Jones (71,609,1144), Karst Waters Institute,
JanineGibert(136),Universit(cid:2)eLyonI,Villeurbanne,France Leesburg,VA, United States
PatriciaKambesis(503,642),CenterforHumanGeoenviron-
Andrew G. Gluesenkamp (227,871), San Antonio Zoo, San
mental Studies, Western Kentucky University, Bowling
Antonio, TX, United States
Green, KY,United States
Paul Goldberg (218), CAS, SEALS, University of Wol-
Brian G. Katz (756), Florida Department of Environmental
longong, Wollongong, Australia; INA, University of
T€ubingen, T€ubingen, Germany Protection, Tallahassee, FL, UnitedStates
Sˇpela Gori(cid:3)cki (387,871), Scriptorium biologorum LLC, Georg Kaufmann (717), Free University of Berlin, Berlin,
Germany
Murska Sobota, Slovenia
Stephan Kempe (1118), Institute of Applied Geosciences,
DarrylE.Granger(348),PurdueUniversity,WestLafayette,
UniversityofTechnologyDarmstadt,Darmstadt,Germany
IN, United States
® AlexanderKlimchouk(485,627,974,1082),InstituteofGeo-
Ronald T. Green (710), Southwest Research Institute , San
logical Sciences, National Academy of Sciences of
Antonio, TX, United States
Ukraine,Kyiv, Ukraine
JasonD.Gulley(468),School ofGeosciences,Universityof
KatherineJ.Knierim(567),U.S.GeologicalSurvey,Lower
South Florida, Tampa, FL, UnitedStates
Mississippi-Gulf Water Science Center, Little Rock, AR,
Philipp H€auselmann (922,943), Swiss Institute for Spele-
United States
ologyandKarstStudies,LaChaux-de-Fonds,Switzerland
Marjeta Konec (76), University of Ljubljana, Biotechnical
Phillip D. Hays (567), U.S. Geological Survey, Lower
Faculty, Department ofBiology, Ljubljana, Slovenia
Mississippi-Gulf Water Science Center; Department of
Johanna E. Kowalko (24), Florida Atlantic University,
Geosciences, University of Arkansas, Fayetteville, AR,
Jupiter, FL, UnitedStates
United States
Jean K. Krejca (739), Zara Environmental, Manchaca, TX,
Jill Heinerth (414), Royal Canadian Geographical Society,
United States
Ottawa, ON, Canada
LeonardoLatella(127),NaturalHistoryMuseumofVerona,
Janet S. Herman (1136), University of Virginia, Charlottes-
Verona, Italy
ville, VA, United States
Contributors xxvii
CarolineM.Loop(326),WakeCountyGovernment,Environ- Mar´ıa Alejandra P(cid:2)erez (260), West Virginia University,
mental Services Department, Raleigh, NC, United States Morgantown, WV, United States
Ivo Lu(cid:3)ci(cid:2)c (1110), Speleological Association Vjetrenica- Aurel Perșoiu (553), Emil Racovița˘ Institute of Speleology,
Popovo Polje, Ravno, Bosnia and Herzegovina Romanian Academy, Cluj-Napoca; Ștefan cel Mare
Marko Luki(cid:2)c (308), Croatian Biospeleological Society, University, Suceava; Institute of Biology, Romanian
Academy, Bucharest, Romania
Zagreb,Croatia
Tanja Pipan (376,399,896,1156), Karst Research Institute at
JoyceLundberg(588,600),CarletonUniversity,Ottawa,ON,
ZRC SAZU, Postojna, Slovenia
Canada
Victor J. Polyak (784), University of New Mexico, Albu-
LiMa(237),DepartmentofBiology,UniversityofMaryland,
querque, NM, United States
College Park, MD, United States
Vincent Pri(cid:2)e (725), Institut Syst(cid:2)ematique E(cid:2)volution
Jennifer L. Macalady (435), The Pennsylvania State
Biodiversit(cid:2)e (ISYEB), Mus(cid:2)eum national d’Histoire nat-
University,University Park, PA, United States
urelle,CNRS, SorbonneUniversit(cid:2)e, EPHE, Paris,France
Maurizio Mainiero (435), Federazione Speleologica
JamesR.Reddell(1018),TheUniversityofTexasatAustin,
Marchigiana, Ancona, Italy
Austin,TX, United States
Florian Malard (8), UMR CNRS 5023, Laboratory of
Douchko Romanov (717), Free University of Berlin, Berlin,
Ecology of Natural and Man-Impacted Hydrosystems,
University Lyon 1, Universit(cid:2)e of Lyon, Villeurbanne, Germany
France CordeliaRoss(521),UniversityofAlabama,Tuscaloosa,AL,
UnitedStates
PeterMatthews(363),InformaticsCommission,International
Union ofSpeleology, Postojna, Slovenia Ira D. Sasowsky (658), University of Akron, Akron, OH,
UnitedStates
Jim I. Mead (794), The Mammoth Site, Hot Springs, SD,
United States Ugo Sauro (285), Retired Professor of the University of
Padova, Padova, Italy; Member of the teaching staff of
Douglas M. Medville (444), West Virginia Speleological
the International Doctoral School of Karstology – Uni-
Survey, Barrackville,WV,United States
versityofNovi Gorici, Nova Gorica,Slovenia
Luis M. Mej´ıa-Ort´ız (333), Quintana Roo University,
FrancescoSauro(850),UniversityofBologna,Bologna,Italy
Cozumel, Mexico
Blaine W. Schubert (794), East Tennessee State University,
MarkMinton(420),U.S.DeepCavingTeam,Linville,VA,
Johnson City, TN, United States
United States
Benjamin Schwartz (769), Edwards Aquifer Research and
MarianneS.Moore(1165),ArizonaStateUniversity,Mesa,
DataCenterandDepartmentofBiology,TexasStateUni-
AZ, United States
versity,SanMarcos, TX, United States
JanezMulec(635),KarstResearchInstitute,ResearchCentre
Stanka Sˇebela (812), ZRC SAZU Karst Research Institute,
oftheSlovenianAcademyofSciencesandArts,Postojna,
Postojna, Slovenia
Slovenia
WilliamA.Shear(739),Hampden-SydneyCollege,Hampden
PhillipJ.Murphy(889),UniversityofLeeds,Leeds,United
Sydney,VA, United States
Kingdom
Thomas E. Shifflett (527), Proyecto Espeleolo´gico Sistema
John E. Mylroie (301), Mississippi State University,
Huautla,Oaxaca, Mexico
Starkville,MS,United States
KevinS.Simon(223),TheUniversityofAuckland,Auckland,
Matthew L. Niemiller (163,227,822,871), The University of
New Zealand
Alabama inHuntsville,Huntsville, AL, UnitedStates
BogdanP.Onac(553,699),EmilRacovița˘ InstituteofSpele- Boris Sket(56),Univerza vLjubljani,Ljubljana, Slovenia
ology, Romanian Academy, Cluj-Napoca, Romania- Michael E. Slay (163,830), The Nature Conservancy, Little
Universityof South Florida, Tampa,FL, United States Rock,AR, United States
Arthur N. Palmer (806,955,1053), State University of New Daphne Soares (227), New Jersey Institute of Technology,
York, Oneonta, NY,United States Newark, NJ, United States
MarioParise(934),DepartmentofEarthandEnvironmental Gustavo A. Soares (559), Carste Ci^encia e Meio Ambiente,
Sciences, UniversityAldo Moro,Bari, Italy Belo Horizonte, Brazil
CethW.Parker(559),DepartmentofBiology,Universityof Christoph Sp€otl (1096), University of Innsbruck, Innsbruck,
Akron, Akron, OH, United States Austria
xxviii Contributors
Gregory S. Springer (277), Department of Geological Mike Wiles (577), Jewel Cave National Monument, Custer,
Sciences,Ohio University, Athens, OH, UnitedStates SD,United States
Paul Jay Steward (426), Cave Research Foundation, Laurel, C. William Steele (527), Proyecto Espeleolo´gico Sistema
MD, United States Huautla, Oaxaca, Mexico
AndreaStone(686),CaliforniaStateUniversity,LosAngeles, John M. Wilson (260,861), National Speleological Society,
CA,UnitedStates Huntsville, AL, United States
StevenJ.Taylor(163,779,822),ColoradoCollege,Colorado Stephen R.H. Worthington (444), Worthington Ground-
Springs, CO,United States water, Dundas,ON, Canada
EleonoraTrajano(177),UniversidadeFederaldeSa˜oCarlos Mary Elizabeth Yancey (665), Department of Biology,
(Federal University of Sa˜o Carlos), DEBE, Laboratory Universityof the South, Sewanee, TN, United States
ofSubterranean Studies/LES,Sa˜o Carlos,Brazil
Jun-xing Yang (237), State Key Laboratory of Genetic
PeterTrontelj(40,1103),BiotechnicalFaculty,Universityof Resources and Evolution, Kunming Institute of Zoology,
Ljubljana, Ljubljana,Slovenia ChineseAcademy ofSciences, Kunming,China
Rudi Verovnik (76), University of Ljubljana, Biotechnical Maja Zagmajster (94,678), University of Ljubljana,
Faculty, Department ofBiology,Ljubljana, Slovenia Ljubljana,Slovenia
Dorothy J. Vesper (320), West Virginia University, Yuanhai Zhang (1071), Institute of Karst Geology, Chinese
Morgantown, WV, UnitedStates Academyof GeologicalSciences, Beijing, China
Tony Waltham (732), Mulu Caves Project and British Cave Yahui Zhao (227,237), Key Laboratory of the Zoological
Research Association, Buxton, United Kingdom Systematics and Evolution, Institute of Zoology, Chinese
Academyof Sciences, Beijing, China
Patty Jo Watson (65), Washington University, Louis, MO,
United States Xuewen Zhu (1071), Institute of Karst Geology, Chinese
Academyof GeologicalSciences, Beijing, China
Elizabeth L. White (187), Hydrologic Investigations,
Petersburg,PA, United States Kirk S. Zigler (665), Department of Biology, University of
the South, Sewanee, TN, United States
WilliamB.White(255,380,407,496,537,609,1006,1031,1063),
The Pennsylvania State University, University Park, PA, Nadja Zupan Hajna (353), ZRC SAZU Karst Research
United States Institute,Postojna, Slovenia