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ENCYCLOPEDIA OF BIODIVERSITY SECOND EDITION ENCYCLOPEDIA OF BIODIVERSITY SECOND EDITION EDITOR-IN-CHIEF Simon A Levin Princeton University, Princeton, NJ, USA VOLUME 1 Academic Press is an imprint of Elsevier Radarweg 29, PO Box 211, 1000 AE Amsterdam, The Netherlands The Boulevard, Langford Lane, Kidlington, Oxford, OX5 1GB, UK First edition 2001 Copyright r 2013 Elsevier Inc. All rights reserved The following articles are US government works in the public domain and are not subject to copyright: Acid and Mercury Deposition Effects on Forest and Freshwater Aquatic Ecosystems Agriculture, Nutrient Management, and Water Quality Biodiversity and Human Health Biodiversity in Plant Breeding Biodiversity of Harmful Marine Algae Biodiversity State and Trends in Southeast Asia Biogeography, Overview Carbon Cycle Effects of Ecotones on Biodiversity Endangered Marine Invertebrates Energy Use, Human Environmental Ethics Ethical Issues in Biodiversity Protection Extinction, Causes of Fishes, Biodiversity of Land Use Issues Landscape Ecology and Population Dynamics Nitrogen Deposition and Terrestrial Biodiversity No part of this publication may be reproduced, stored in a retrieval system or transmitted in any form or by any means electronic, mechanical, photocopying, recording or otherwise without the prior written permission of the publisher Permissions may be sought directly from Elsevier’s Science & Technology Rights Department in Oxford, UK: phone (+44) (0) 1865 843830; fax (+44) (0) 1865 853333; email: DEDICATION The Second Edition of the Encyclopedia of Biodiversity is great global citizens, who changed the world of science, and dedicated to the memory of two of our contributors – our did all they could to change the world we live in, for the better. colleagues, friends, and mentors, Stephen Schneider and They left gaps that can’t be filled. Elinor Ostrom. Both Steve and Lin were great scientists and v EDITOR-IN-CHIEF BIOGRAPHY Simon Levin’s research interests have been in complexity, and in understanding how macroscopic patterns and processes are maintained at the level of ecosystems and the biosphere in terms of ecological, behavioral, and evolutionary mechanisms that operate primarily at the level of the organisms. In recent years, Levin has turned his attention to the parallels between ecological, financial, and economic systems, particularly with regard to what makes them vulnerable to collapse, and to the evolution and development of structure and organization. Of particular interest to Levin are discounting, intergenerational and intragenerational equity, and cooperation and social norms. He has especially been interested in the management of public goods and common-pool resources. Much of Levin’s ecological research is concerned with the evolution of diversification, mechanisms sustaining biological diversity in natural systems, and implications for ecosystem structure and functioning. The work integrates empirical studies and mathematical modeling, with emphasis upon how to extrapolate across scales of space, time, and organizational complexity. The essential mathematical challenge is the development of macroscopic descriptions for the collective behavior of large and het- erogeneous ensembles that are subject to continual evolutionary modification. Specific attention is directed to the evolution and ecology of collective behavior, from the movement of flocks of birds and schools of fish to human decision-making. Current ecological systems of study include plant communities, as well as marine open-ocean and intertidal systems. In related work, Levin has been interested in the dynamics of infectious diseases, and in particular in the self-organization of strain structure in influenza A, and in the dynamics of antibiotic resistance. In addition, he has been involved in issues of sustainable development, with emphasis on the linkages between environmental and socioeconomic systems. vii SECTION EDITORS LIST Charles Perrings Monica G Turner EcoSERVICES Group Eugene P. Odum Professor of Ecology School of Life Sciences Department of Zoology, Birge Hall Arizona State University University of Wisconsin PO Box 874501 Madison, WI 53706 Tempe, AZ 85287 USA USA Robert K Colwell David M Karl University of Connecticut Professor of Oceanography Department of Ecology & Evolutionary Biology University of Hawaii 75 N. Eagleville Road, Unit 3043 Honolulu, HI 96822 Storrs, CT 06269-3043 USA USA G David Tilman Sandra Diaz Regents Professor and McKnight Presidential Chair in IMBIV Ecology Casilla de Correo 495 Department of Ecology, Evolution and Behavior Velez Sarsfield 299 University of Minnesota 5000 Cordoba St. Paul, Minnesota 55108 Argentina USA Peter Kareiva Gretchen C Daily Chief Scientist & Director Science Department of Biology The Nature Conservancy Stanford University 4722 Latona Ave NE 377 Serra Mall Seattle, WA 98105 Stanford, CA 94305-5020 USA USA Georgina M Mace Division of Biology Centre for Population Biology Imperial College London Silwood Park, Ascot Berks, SL5 7PY UK ix