Encyclopedia of Aquaculture

1068 Pages·2000·12 MB·English

by  Robert R. Stickney

ENCYCLOPEDIA OF
AQUACULTURE
ENCYCLOPEDIA OF AQUACULTURE
Editor-in-Chief
RobertR.Stickney
TexasSeaGrantCollegeProgram
TexasA&MUniversity
EditorialBoard EditorialStaff
WadeGriffin ExecutiveEditor:ArthurBiderman
TexasA&MUniversity
ManagingEditor:JohnSollami
RonaldHardy
AssistantManagingEditor:SachinShenolikar
HagermanFishCultureExperimentStation
Editor:GlennCollins
S.K.Johnson
TexasVeterinaryMedicalDiagnosticLab EditorialAssistant:HughKelly
MichaelRust
NorthwestFisheriesScienceCenter
GranvilTreece
TexasSeaGrantCollegeProgram
GaryWedemeyer
WesternFisheriesResearchCenter
ENCYCLOPEDIA OF
AQUACULTURE
Robert R. Stickney
Texas Sea Grant College Program
Bryan, Texas
AWiley-IntersciencePublication
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LibraryofCongressCataloginginPublicationData:
Encyclopediaofaquaculture/[editedby]RobertR.Stickney.
p. cm.
Includesbibliographicalreferencesandindex.
ISBN0-471-29101-3(alk.paper)
1.AquacultureEncyclopedias. I.Stickney,RobertR.
SH20.3.E53 2000
639.8003—dc21 99-34744
PrintedintheUnitedStatesofAmerica.
10987654321
FOREWORD
There are many definitions of the word aquaculture. The scale and importance of food production through
Those concerned with the collation of statistical data aquaculturecanbeillustratedbyafewexamples:
concerning food production through aquaculture tend
to be very specific; they embody the concept of stock (cid:15) By 1996, more than nine out of every ten oysters,
ownership as well as its management, to distinguish Atlantic salmon, and cyprinids consumed were
between the harvest from capture fisheries and from products of aquaculture. Four out of every five
farming. One simpler definition1 of aquaculture is the musselsandthreeoutoffourscallopswerecultured;
‘‘cultivation of plants or breeding of animals in water.’’ 27%ofallshrimporiginatefromaquaculture;
Many different activities fall within this definition. The (cid:15) In1997(themostrecentyearforwhichinternational
farmingofaquaticanimalsandplantsfordirectorindirect statistics are available), global aquaculture produc-
human consumption is the field with which I am most tiontotalled28.8milliontonsoffinfish,crustaceans,
familiar but it is clear that this definition of aquaculture and molluscs for direct human consumption, worth
would encompass many other activities, including the US$45.5 billion; 7.2 million tons of seaweed (worth
rearing of aquatic animals and plants for and within US$4.9billion)werealsoproduced;
public and private aquariums and research facilities, the
(cid:15) Aconsiderableproportionoftheharvestfromcapture
production of bait fish, and the hatchery and nursery
fisheries is destined for the production of fish meal
rearing of stock intended for fisheries enhancement or
andfishoil,whichareprimarilyusedbythefeedstuff
restockingprograms.Inaquaticfoodproductiontheword
industry. Capture fisheries production available for
aquaculturehassometimeserroneouslybeenusedtoimply
human consumption has been on a plateau or
culture in freshwater, while the word mariculture has
increasedonlyslowlyformanyyears;
beenusedtorefertocultureinseawater.Infact,theword
(cid:15) Aquaculture thus remains the major means of
aquaculture embraces culture in all salinities, ranging
maintaining current per capita ‘‘fish’’ availability.
fromfreshwaterthroughbrackishwaterandfull-strength
It has been estimated that global aquaculture
seawatertohypersalinewater.
production will need to expand to 62 million tons
The production of an aquaculture encyclopedia at
by 2035 to maintain 1993 global average per capita
this moment in history is particularly appropriate, since
consumptionlevels.
the positive and negative impacts of food production
throughaquaculturearefrequentlydiscussedbyscientists
The Encyclopedia of Aquaculture will assist the
not working in this specific field, by the media, and
many scientists, economists, sociologists, administrators,
by the public. Often, such discussions are marred by
and politicians who are either directly involved in
misunderstandings aboutthevarioustermsutilized.The
aquaculture itself or are concerned with resource use
publicimageofaquacultureisnotalwaysgood.Whilesome
and environmental matters. The book will also be useful
ventures have undoubtedly caused environmental and/or
for those concerned with development and planning
socioeconomic harm in the past, the emphasis now is on
issues. In addition, this book provides information of
sustainableaquaculture,whichimpliesresponsibility.The
relevance to those in the general public who consume
FAO Code of Conduct for Responsible Fisheries includes
aquaculture products, engage in recreational fisheries
manyArticleswhicharespecificorrelatedtoaquaculture.
or keep aquariums, as well as those who belong
Many other attempts are being made to enhance the
to organizations concerned with animal welfare and
responsibility of aquaculture producers, which range
environmentalconservation.
fromlargecommercialenterprisesprovidingproductsfor TheEncyclopediaofAquaculturewillthusserveasan
domesticandexportmarketstosmall-scaleruralfarmers essential handy reference book for a very wide audience,
seeking to produce family food and income. Attempts to and its Editor-in-Chief and Editorial Board are to be
mollifyconsumerconcernfortheenvironmentthroughthe congratulated on undertaking the task of producing this
‘‘eco-labelling’’ of aquaculture products produced under unique document. I hope all its readers will find it as
responsibleconditionsareon-going. usefulasIshall.
MICHAELB.NEW
1J.B.Sykes(Editor),1982.TheConciseOxfordDictionary,Oxford PastPresident,WorldAquacultureSociety
UniversityPress,Oxford,SeventhEdition1982,Reprinted1989. BoardMember,EuropeanAquacultureSociety
v
PREFACE
Aquaculture is the production of aquatic plants and rates of production are possible in such water systems
animals under controlled or semicontrolled conditions, as raceways and marine net-pens, which are known as
or as is sometimes said, aquaculture is equivalent to intensiveculturesystems.Pondsaregenerallyconsidered
underwater agriculture(1). The term mariculture refers tobeextensiveculturesystems.
to the production of marine organisms; thus, it is less Improvementsinproductionoverthepastfewdecades
inclusive than aquaculture, which relatesto bothmarine have been associated with the development of sound
andfreshwatercultureactivities. management techniques that include water quality and
A primary goal of aquaculturists has been to produce disease control, provision of nutritionally complete feeds,
food for human consumption. Various species of carp top andthedevelopmentofimprovedstocksthroughselective
thelistintermsofaquacultural production.Mostofthat breeding, hybridization, and the application of molecular
productionisinChina,thoughIndiaandcertainEuropean genetics technology. Many species that could not be
nations also produce significant amounts of carp. In spawned or reared a few decades ago are now being
North America, channel catfish farming is the largest produced,becauseoftechnologicalbreakthroughs,inlarge
aquacultureindustry.Othersofimportanceincludetrout, quantitiesbyaquaculturistsaroundtheworld.
crawfish, and various species of shellfishes. Seaweed Predicted peaking of the world’s wild capture fishery
cultureashumanfoodisamajorindustry,particularlyin at 90 million metric tons (about 99 million short tons)
JapanandotherAsiannations. occurred in 1989 (2). Since that time global wild capture
Supplementing the human food supply is not the landings have been relatively stable. Given increasing
only goal of aquaculturists. Many of the species taken demandforseafood,includingfreshwateraquaticspecies,
by recreational anglers are produced in hatcheries and and a stable to declining wild catch, the shortfall must
reared to a size where they can be expected to have comefromaquaculture.Asof1992,about18.5%ofglobal
a good chance of survival before being released into fisheries output was attributable to aquaculture (3), and
the natural environment. Continuous stocking may be whileaquacultureproductionisincreasing,thereissome
necessaryinsomebodiesofwater,whileinothersresident questionastowhetherthegrowthofaquaculturecankeep
breeding populations may become established. Examples pacewithdemand.
in North America are largemouth bass, northern pike, In 1992, 88.5% of the world’s aquaculture production
muskellunge,reddrum,variousspeciesoftrout,Atlantic camefromAsia(3).Becauseofsuitablegrowingconditions
salmon and Pacific salmon. Many of the fish produced year round, the vast majority of aquaculture production
for stocking purposes are reared in public (state or comes from low temperate and tropical regions. Rela-
federal) hatcheries, but increasingly, private hatcheries tively inexpensive land and labor, accompanied by large
are becoming a source of fish, particularly in conjunction expenses of undeveloped coastline with abundant sup-
withstockingfarmpondsandprivatelakes. plies of water and few environmental regulations have
The ornamental fish industry depends on animals contributed to the establishment of much of the industry
caught in the wild and on those produced by aquacultur- in developing nations. Conditions are changing however.
ists.Mostofthebaitminnowsavailableinthemarketplace Many of the best areas for aquaculture have been taken,
comefromfishfarms.Seaweedsarenotonlyconsumedby environmental stewardship is beginning to receive the
people as food, they are also a source of such chemicals attention of governments in many developing countries,
ascarrageenanandagar,whichareutilizedineverything and the once abundant supplies of high quality water
from toothpaste and cosmetics to automobile tires. Squid are being fully utilized in many areas. Thus, the face
and cuttlefish are not being produced to any extent as of the industry is changing. Closed system technology,
human food, but they are reared as a source of giant which includes continuous water treatment with little
axonsforuseinbiomedicalresearch.Anincreasingnum- or no effluent, and the development of culture systems
berofpotentialpharmaceuticalsarebeingidentifiedfrom located in the open ocean are seen as technologies that
marineorganisms.Cultureofvariousspeciesfromanum- will provide opportunities for virtually unlimited expan-
berofphyla,manyofwhichhaveheldlittleornointerest sion of aquaculture. Much of the technology for closed
foraquacultureinthepast,showpromiseasonemeansof and offshore systems has been developed, but in many
meetingthedemandforcancer-fightingandothertypesof instances employment of that technology has not trans-
drugs.Anew,andpotentiallylargeaquacultureenterprise lated into economic feasibility. As greater efficiencies in
couldbefoundeduponsuchspecies. production are achieved, new species which have higher
The roots of aquaculture can be traced back to China, market prices are developed, and demand increases, the
perhaps as much as 4,000 years ago. Many nations have economicpicturecanbeexpectedtoimprove.
had some form of aquaculture in place for one or more The field of aquaculture encompasses many technical
centuries, but it is only since about the 1960s that disciplines and trade as well as business management
scientists began to conduct research that brought the and economics. Knowledge of plant and/or animal breed-
disciplinetoitscurrentlevelofdevelopment.Since1960, ing,animalnutrition,waterandsoilsanalysis,surveying,
typicalannualpondproductionrateshavejumpedfroma computerscience,pathology,carpentry,plumbing,electri-
fewhundredkg/ha(onekg/haisapproximatelyequivalent calwiring,welding,andbookkeepingareamongtheskills
toonepound/acre)toseveralthousandkg/ha.Muchhigher thatarerequiredonaworkingaquaculturefacility.
vii
viii PREFACE
A good aquaculturist is involved in every aspect of contributions that provide more detailed information on
the activity, from reproduction of the parent organisms thesametopic.
throughrearingoftheyoung,tofinaldisposition,whether The Encyclopedia of Aquaculture was written by
thatinvolvesdirectsalestothepublic,salestoaprocessor, experts from academia and government agencies and by
or stocking of public or private waters. The job of practicing aquaculturists in the private sector. Entries
the aquaculturist is not completed until the consumer, are followed by bibliographies designed to document the
whether a patron at a restaurant, a home fish hobbyist, information present, as well as provide readers with an
ortheanglerwhoisusingbaitminnows,hasreceivedthe opportunitytofurtherexploreeachtopicinmoredepth.
produceoftheaquaculturefacilityinacceptablecondition.
The Encyclopedia of Aquaculture has been designed References
for use by both those who have some knowledge of the
field or may even be aquaculture professionals, as well 1. R.R.Stickney,PrinciplesofAquaculture,JohnWiley&Sons,
as for individuals who are interested in learning more NewYork,1994.
about aquaculture, perhaps with the idea of becoming 2. Food and Agriculture Organization of the United Nations,
involved. Our intent is to provide information that is FisheriesDepartment,Rome,Italy,1995.
readilyunderstandablebypeoplewhohaveatleastsome 3. Anonymous, Aquaculture Magazine Buyer’s Guide ’95
sciencebackground,withoutinsultingprofessionalsinthe pp.11–22,1995.
field. Some topics are mentioned or briefly summarized
in several entries, but when a topic is only given cursory ROBERTR.STICKNEY
treatmentthereaderisreferredtooneormoreadditional Bryan,Texas
CONTRIBUTORS
Geoff Allan, Port Stephens Research Centre, Taylors Beach, Australia, Arnold G. Eversole, Clemson University, Clemson, South Carolina,
BarramundiCulture;SilverPerchCulture CrawfishCulture
Robert D. Armstrong, Schering-Plough Animal Health, Forestville, William T. Fairgrieve, Northwest Fisheries Science Center, Seattle,
California,Drugs Washington,NetPenCulture
C.R. Arnold, Marine Science Institute, Port Aransas, Texas, Snapper Thomas A. Flagg, National Marine Fisheries Service, Manchester,
(FamilyLutjanidae)Culture Washington, Conservation Hatcheries; Endangered Species Recovery:
DanD.Baliao,SoutheastAsianFisheriesDevelopmentCenter,Tigbauan, CaptiveBroodstockstoAidRecoveryofEndangeredSalmonStocks
Philippines,MudCrabCulture GaryC.G.Fornshell,UniversityofIdahoCooperativeExtensionSystem,
Frederic T. Barrows, USFWS, Fish Technology Center, Bozeman, Twin Falls, Idaho, Effluents: Dissolved Compounds; Rainbow Trout
Montana, Feed Additives; Feed Manufacturing Technology; Larval Culture
Feeding—Fish,andmore IanForster,TheOceanicInstitute,Waimanalo,Hawaii,Energy;Nutrient
BruceA.Barton,UniversityofSouthDakota,Vermillion,SouthDakota, Requirements
Stress JoeFox,TexasA&MUniversityatCorpusChristi,CorpusChristi,Texas,
DanielD.Benetti,UniversityofMiami,Miami,Florida,GrouperCulture EyestalkAblation
DavidA.Bengtson,UniversityofRhodeIsland,Kingston,RhodeIsland, J.Gabaudan,ResearchCentreforAnimalNutritionandHealth,Saint-
SummerFlounderCulture LouisCedex,France,VitaminRequirements;VitaminsSourcesforFish
K.L. Bootes, Marine Science Institute, Port Aransas, Texas, Snapper Feeds
(FamilyLutjanidae)Culture MargieLeeGallagherPh.D.,EastCarolinaUniversity,Greenville,North
YolandaJ.Brady,AuburnUniversity,Auburn,Alabama,ViralDiseases Carolina,EelCulture
ofFishandShellfish DelbertM.Gatlin,III,TexasA&MUniversity,CollegeStation,Texas,
ErnestL.Brannon,UniversityofIdaho,Moscow,Idaho,RainbowTrout Minerals;RedDrumCulture
Culture Wade L. Griffin, Texas A&M University, College Station, Texas,
NiallBromage,UniversityofStirling,Stirling,Scotland,HalibutCulture Economics,BusinessPlans
NickBrown,UniversityofStirling,Stirling,Scotland,HalibutCulture NilsT.Hagen,BodøCollege,Bodø,Norway,EchinodermCulture
MikeBruce,UniversityofStirling,Stirling,Scotland,HalibutCulture Larry A. Hanson, Mississippi State University, Mississippi State,
Martin W. Brunson, Mississippi State University, Mississippi State, Mississippi,Vaccines
Mississippi,FertilizationofFishPonds;SunfishCulture TerryHanson,AuburnUniversity,Auburn,Alabama,MarketIssuesin
Lucy Bunkley-Williams, University of Puerto Rico, Mayagu¨ez, Puerto theUnitedStatesAquacultureIndustry
Rico,MulticellularParasite(Macroparasite)ProblemsinAquaculture RonaldW.Hardy,HagermanFishCultureExperimentStation,Hager-
CharlesW.Caillouet,Jr.,NationalMarineFisheriesService,Galveston, man, Idaho, Antinutritional Factors; Dietary Protein Requirements;
Texas,SeaTurtleCulture:Kemp’sRidleyandLoggerheadTurtles Energy,andmore
NewtonCastagnolli,IndependentConsultant,SanPaulo,Brazil,Brazil John Hargreaves, Mississippi State University, Mississippi State,
FishCulture Mississippi,FertilizationofFishPonds
JosephJ. Cech,Jr,UniversityofCalifornia,Davis,Davis,California, UptonHatch,AuburnUniversity,Auburn,Alabama,MarketIssues in
OsmoregulationinBonyFishes theUnitedStatesAquacultureIndustry
Frank A. Chapman, University of Florida, Gainesville, Florida, John P. Hawke, Louisiana State University, Baton Rouge, Louisiana,
OrnamentalFishCulture,Freshwater BacterialDiseaseAgents
ShulinChen,WashingtonStateUniversity,Pullman,Washington,Efflu- RoyHeidinger,SouthernIllinoisUniversity,Carbondale,Illinois,Black
ents:DissolvedCompounds;Effluents:Sludge;Filtration:Mechanical Bass/LargemouthBassCulture
K.K. Chew, University of Washington, Seattle, Washington, Molluscan William K. Hershberger, National Center for Cool and Cold Water
Culture Aquaculture,Lectown, West Virginia,Reproduction, Fertilization,and
W.CraigClarke,PacificBiologicalStation,Nanaimo,Canada,Smolting Selection
AngeloColorni,NationalCenterforMariculture,Elat,Israel,Gilthead Dave A. Higgs, West Vancouver Laboratory, West Vancouver, Canada,
SeaBreamCulture;SeaBassCulture AntinutritionalFactors;LipidsandFattyAcids
John Colt, Northwest Fisheries Science Center, Seattle, Washington, G.JoanHolt,UniversityofTexas,PortAransas,Texas,OrnamentalFish
AerationSystems;BlowersandCompressors;DegassingSystems,and Culture,Marine
more B.R.Howell,CentreforEnvironment,FisheriesandAquacultureResearch,
StevenR.Craig,TexasA&MUniversity,CollegeStation,Texas,Pompano Weymouth,UnitedKingdom,SoleCulture
Culture W. Huntting Howell, University of New Hampshire, Durham, New
R.LeroyCreswell,HarborBranchOceanographicInstitution,Inc.,Fort Hampshire,WinterFlounderCulture
Pierce,Florida,CrabCulture:WestIndianRedSpiderCrab S.K.Johnson,TexasVeterinaryMedicalDiagnosticLaboratory,College
EdwinCryer,MontgomeryWatson,Boise,Idaho,Ozone Station,Texas,DisinfectionandSterilization;LiveTransport;Protozoans
D.A.Davis,MarineScienceInstitute,PortAransas,Texas,Ingredientand asDiseaseAgents
FeedEvaluation;Snapper(FamilyLutjanidae)Culture WalterR.Keithly,LouisianaStateUniversity,BatonRouge,Louisiana,
GadDegani,GalileeTechnologicalCenter,QiryatShemona,Israel,Eel Economics:ContrastwithWildCatchFisheries
Culture T.L. King, University of Washington, Seattle, Washington, Molluscan
M.RichardDeVoe,SouthCarolinaSeaGrantConsortium,Charleston, Culture
SouthCarolina,RegulationandPermitting GeorgeWm.Kissil,NationalCenterforMariculture,Elat,Israel,Gilthead
Beverly A. Dixon, California State University, Hayward, California, SeaBreamCulture;SeaBassCulture
Antibiotics Danny Klinefelter, Texas A&M University, College Station, Texas,
Edward M. Donaldson, Aquaculture and Fisheries Consultant, West Financing
Vancouver,Canada,HormonesinFinfishAquaculture Christopher C. Kohler, Southern Illinois University, Carbondale,
FayeM.Dong,UniversityofWashington,Seattle,Washington,Antinutri- Illinois,StripedBassandHybridStripedBassCulture
tionalFactors;FeedEvaluation,Chemical;LipidsandFattyAcids Chris Langdon, Oregon State University, Newport, Oregon, Micropar-
Abigail Elizur, National Center for Mariculture, Elat, Israel, Gilthead ticulateFeeds,ComplexMicroparticles;MicroparticulateFeeds,Micro
SeaBreamCulture;SeaBassCulture EncapsulatedParticles
Douglas H. Ernst, Oregon State University, Corvallis, Oregon, Perfor- J.P.Lazo,MarineScienceInstitute,PortAransas,Texas,Ingredientand
manceEngineering FeedEvaluation
ix