Encyclopedia of Anthropology (5 Volume Set)

2610 Pages·2005·117.36 MB·English

by  H. James Birx

Volume 1.qxd 1/25/2006 5:34 PM Page i
E NHC Y C L O P E D I A O F
A
NT ROPOLOGY
G G G G G
Volume 1.qxd 1/25/2006 5:34 PM Page ii
To the memory of Marvin Farber
Volume 1.qxd 1/25/2006 5:34 PM Page iii
E N C Y C L O P E D I A O F
H
A
NT ROPOLOGY
HH .. JJ AA MM EE SS BB II RR XX EE DD II TT OO RR
Canisius College, SUNY Geneseo
Volume 1.qxd 1/25/2006 5:34 PM Page iv
Copyright © 2006 by Sage Publications, Inc.
All rights reserved.No part ofthis book may be reproduced or utilized in any
form or by any means, electronic or mechanical, including photocopying,
recording, or by any information storage and retrieval system, without
permission in writing from the publisher.
For information:
Sage Publications,Inc.
2455 Teller Road
Thousand Oaks,California 91320
E-mail:[email protected]
Sage Publications Ltd.
1 Oliver’s Yard
55 City Road
London EC1Y 1SP
United Kingdom
Sage Publications India Pvt.Ltd.
B-42,Panchsheel Enclave
Post Box 4109
New Delhi 110 017 India
Printed in China.
This book is printed on acid-free paper.
Library ofCongress Cataloging-in-Publication Data
Encyclopedia ofanthropology / H.James Birx,editor.
p.cm.
Includes bibliographical references and index.
ISBN 0-7619-3029-9 (cloth)
1.Anthropology—Encyclopedias.I.Birx,H.James.
GN11.E63 2005
301′.030—dc22
2005013953
05 06 07 08 09 10 9 8 7 6 5 4 3 2 1
Sage Reference: RolfJanke,Sara Tauber
Production: Claudia A.Hoffman
Permissions and Image Research: Karen Wiley
Typesetting: C&M Digitals (P) Ltd.
Indexing: Will Ragsdale
Cover Designers: Ravi Balasuriya and Michelle Lee Kenny
Volume 1.qxd 1/25/2006 5:34 PM Page v
List of Entries
ix
Reader’s Guide
CONTENTS xvii
About the Editor
1 xxix
Editorial Board
xxxi
Advisory Board
xxxiii
Contributors
xxxv
Acknowledgments
xli
Foreword
Biruté Mary F.Galdikas
xliii
Introduction
H.James Birx
xlvii
Entries A–B
1–434
Index
I-1–I-96
Volume 1.qxd 1/25/2006 5:34 PM Page vi
G G G G G
CHRONOLOGY
Date Event Refer to
1314 BCE Born:Ramses II,pharaoh ofEgypt Abu Simbel,Pyramids,Ramses II,Rosetta Stone,Egypt
551 BCE Born:Confucius,Chinese philosopher Asia,Confucianism,Daoism,Great Wall ofChina
384 BCE Born:Aristotle,ancient Greek philosopher and author ofThe History ofAnimals Acropolis,Animals,Aristotle,Naturalism,Teleology
96 BCE Born:Titus Lucretius Carus,ancient Roman philosopher and author ofOn the Coliseum,Lucretius,Rome
Nature ofThings
1735 Published:Systema Naturaeby Carolus Linnaeus Carolus Linnaeus,Pongids,Primate taxonomy
1799 Discovered:Rosetta Stone in the Nile delta,west ofAlexandria Jean-François Champollion,Egyptology
1848 Published:The Communist Manifestoby Karl Marx and Friedrich Engels Friedrich Engels,Karl Marx
1859 Published:On the Origin ofSpecies by Charles Darwin Charles Darwin
1871 Published:Primitive Cultureby Edward Burnett Tylor Edward Burnett Tylor
1908 Discovered:Venus ofWillendorffigurine in Austria by archaeologist Josef Venus ofWillendorf
Szombathy
1912 Discovered:Machu Picchu in Peru by Hiram Bingham Machu Picchu,Peru
1921 Published:Languageby Edward Sapir Language and Culture,Edward Sapir
1922 Published:Argonauts ofthe Western Pacificby Bronislaw Malinowski Bronislaw Malinowski
1922 Completed:Nanook ofthe North,a film by Robert J.Flaherty Eskimos,Inuit
1922 Published:The Andaman Islandersby A.R.Radcliff-Brown A.R.Radcliff-Brown
1922 Discovered:Tutankhamun’s pharaonic tomb by Howard Carter in the Valley ofthe Howard Carter,Egypt,Egyptology
Kings,Egypt
1924 Discovered:Taung skull,the first Australopithecine fossil found in South Africa Raymond A.Dart,Australopithecines
1928 Published:Coming ofAge in Samoaby Margaret Mead Margaret Mead
1934 Published:Patterns ofCultureby Ruth Benedict Ruth Benedict
1940 Discovered:Lascaux cave,with its magnificent Cro-Magnon cave murals,in France Altamira Cave,Lascaux Cave,Ochre
1940 Published:The Nuerby Sir Edward E.Evans-Pritchard Edward Evans-Pritchard
1940 Published:Race,Language,and Cultureby Franz Boas Franz Boas,Language,Culture
1949 Published:Social Structureby George Peter Murdock George Peter Murdock
1953 Proposed:DNA molecule working model by James D.Watson and Francis DNA Molecule,RNA Molecule
F.H.C.Crick
vi
Volume 1.qxd 1/25/2006 5:34 PM Page vii
CHRONOLOGY vii
Date Event Refer to
1955 Published:Theory ofCulture Changeby Julian H.Steward Culture Change,Julian H.Steward
1956 Published:Language,Thought,and Realityby Benjamin Lee Whorf Sapir-WhorfHypothesis
1959 Published:The Evolution ofCultureby Leslie A.White Culture,Leslie A.White
1959 Discovered:Zinjanthropus boiseifossil skull by Mary D.Leakey at Olduvai Gorge in Mary D.Leakey,Olduvai Gorge,Zinjanthropus boisei
Tanzania
1960 Published:Evolution and Cultureby Marshall D.Sahlins and Elman R.Service Marshall D.Sahlins,Elman R.Service
1961 Discovered:Homo habilisby Louis S.B.Leakey at Olduvai Gorge in Tanzania Homo habilis,Louis S.B.Leakey,Olduvai Gorge
1963 Published:Anthropology:Culture Patterns and Processesby Alfred Louis Kroeber Alfred Louis Kroeber
1963 Published:Race,Science,and Humanityby Ashley Montagu Ashley Montagu
1963 Published:Structural Anthropologyby Claude Lévi-Strauss Claude Lévi-Strauss,Structuralism
1963 Published:The Mountain Gorilla:Ecology and Behaviorby George B.Schaller Dian Fossey,Gorillas
1966 Published:Religion:An Anthropological View by Anthony F.C.Wallace Anthropology ofReligion,Anthony F.C.Wallace
1968 Published:The Rise ofAnthropological Theory:A History ofTheories ofCultureby Marvin Harris,Theories
Marvin Harris
1972 Discovered:Homo habilisskull #1470 by Richard E.F.Leakey at Koobi Fora in Homo habilis,Richard E.F.Leakey
Kenya
1973 Published:The Interpretation ofCulturesby Clifford R.Geertz Clifford R.Geertz,Postmodernism
1974 Discovered:Australopithecus afarensis“Lucy”skeleton by Donald C.Johanson at Australopithecines,Donald C.Johanson
Hadar in the Afar Triangle ofEthiopia
1975 Published:Reflections on Languageby Noam Chomsky Noam Chomsky,Language
1975 Published:Sociobiology:The New Synthesisby Edward O.Wilson Sociobiology,Edward O.Wilson
1976 Discovered:Laetoli footprints ofAustralopithecus afarensisby Mary D.Leakey in Bipedal Locomotion,Mary D.Leakey
Tanzania
1983 Published:Gorillas in the Mistby Dian Fossey Dian Fossey,Gorillas,Primate Conservation
1983 Published:In the Shadow ofManby Jane Goodall Chimpanzees,Jane Goodall
1983 Published:Marxism and Anthropology:The History ofa Relationshipby Maurice Karl Marx,Marxism
Bloch
1997 Published:Bonobo:The Forgotten Apeby Frans B.M.de Waal Bonobos,Frans B.M.de Waal
2000 Published:Extinct Humansby Ian Tattersall and Jeffrey H.Schwartz Hominid Taxonomy,Jeffrey H.Schwartz,Ian Tattersall
2003 Completed:Human Genome Project,working draft version Human Genome Project
2005 Completed:Chimpanzee genome mapping Chimpanzees,Bonobos
2005 Published:The Great Apesby Biruté Mary F.Galdikas Apes,Pongids,Primate Conservation
Volume 1.qxd 1/25/2006 5:34 PM Page viii
G G G G G
CONVERSION CHART
Metric to Imperial Imperial to Metric
Length Length
mm 1 millimeter =0.04 inch (in) in 1 inch =2.54 centimeters (cm)
cm 1 centimeter =0.40 inch (in) ft 1 foot =0.30 meter (m)
m 1 meter =39.40 inches (in) yd 1 yard =0.91 meter (m)
=3.28 feet (ft) mi 1 mile =1.61 kilometer (km)
=1.09 yards (yd)
km 1 kilometer =0.62 mile (mi) Area
ft2 1 square foot =0.09 square meters (m2)
Area yd2 1 square yard =0.84 meter (m2)
cm2 1 square centimeter =0.16 square inch (in2) ac 1 acre =0.40 hectare (ha)
m2 1 square meter =10.77 square feet (ft2)
=1.20 square yards (yd2) Volume (Dry)
km2 1 square kilometer =0.39 square mile (mi2) yd3 1 cubic yard =0.76 cubic meter (m3)
ha 1 hectare =107,636 square feet (ft2) bu 1 bushel =36.37 liters (L)
=2.5 acres (ac)
Volume (Liquid)
Volume (Dry) oz 1 fluid ounce =28.41 milliliters (mL)
m3 1 cubic centimeter =0.061 cubic inch (in3) pt 1 pint =0.57 liter (L)
m3 1 cubic meter =1.31 cubic yards (yd3) gal 1 gallon (U.S.) =3.79 liters (L)
=35.31 cubic feet (ft3) gal 1 gallon =4.55 liters (L)
hL 1 hectoliter =2.8 bushels (bu)
Weight
Volume (Liquid) oz 1 ounce =28.35 grams (g)
mL 1 milliliter =0.035 fluid ounce (Imp) lb 1 pound =453.6 grams (g)
L 1 liter =1.76 pints (Imp) ton 1 ton =0.91 ton (t)
=0.88 quart (Imp)
=0.26 U.S.gallon (U.S.gal) Speed
=0.22 Imperial gallons (gal) ft/sec 1 foot per second =0.30 meters per
second (m/sec)
Weight mph 1 mile per hour =1.61 kilometers per
g 1 gram =0.035 ounce (oz) hour (km/h)
kg 1 kilogram =2.21 pounds (lb)
t 1 ton =1.10 short tons Temperature
=2,205 pounds (lb) °C degrees Celsius =(°F −32) ×5/9
Speed
m/sec 1 meter per second =3.28 feet per second (ft/sec)
=2.24 miles per hour (mph)
km/h 1 kilometer per hour =0.62 mile per hour (mph)
Temperature
°F degrees Fahrenheit =(°C ×9/5) +32
viii
Volume 1.qxd 1/25/2006 5:34 PM Page ix
G G G G G
LIST OF ENTRIES
Aborigines Anthropic principle Apes,greater
(cid:1) Aborigines Anthropocentrism Apes,lesser
Acheulean culture Anthropology and business Apollonian
Acropolis Anthropology and Aquatic ape hypothesis
Action anthropology epistemology Aquinas,Thomas
Adaptation,biological Anthropology and the Third Arboreal hypothesis
Adaptation,cultural World Archaeology
Aesthetic appreciation Anthropology ofmen Archaeology and gender
Affirmative action Anthropology ofreligion studies
Africa,socialist schools in Anthropology ofwomen Archaeology,biblical
African American thought Anthropology,careers in Archaeology,environmental
African Americans Anthropology,characteristics of Archaeology,maritime
African thinkers Anthropology,clinical Archaeology,medieval
Aggression Anthropology,cultural Archaeology,salvage
(cid:1) Ape aggression Anthropology,economic Architectural anthropology
Agricultural revolution Anthropology,history of Arctic
Agriculture,intensive (cid:1) Future ofanthropology Ardrey,Robert
Agriculture,origins of Anthropology,humanistic Argentina
Agriculture,slash-and-burn Anthropology,philosophical Aristotle
Alchemy Anthropology,practicing Arsuaga,J.L.
Aleuts Anthropology,social Art,universals in
ALFRED:The ALlele FREquency (cid:1) Anthropology and sociology Artificial intelligence
Database (cid:1) Social anthropology (cid:1) Artificial intelligence
Algonquians Anthropology,subdivisions of Asante
Alienation Anthropology,theory in Assimilation
(cid:1) Alienation Anthropology,Visual Atapuerca
Altamira cave (cid:1) Visual anthropology Athabascan
Altruism Anthropometry Auel,Jean Marie
Amazonia Anthropomorphism Aurignacian culture
Amish Aotearoa (New Zealand) Australia
Anasazi Ape biogeography (cid:1) Australia
Ancestor worship Ape cognition Australian aborigines
Angkor Wat Ape language Australopithecines
Animals (cid:1) Ape communication Axes,hand
Animatism (cid:1) Ape intelligence Aymara
Animism Apes,fossil Aztec agriculture
ix