Encyclopdia Britannica Volume XV Slice VI Justinian II to Kells

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Title: Encyclopaedia Britannica, 11th Edition, Volume 15, Slice 6
"Justinian II." to "Kells"

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THE ENCYCLOPÆDIA BRITANNICA

A DICTIONARY OF ARTS, SCIENCES, LITERATURE AND GENERAL

INFORMATION

ELEVENTH EDITION

VOLUME XV SLICE VI

Justinian II. to Kells

Articles in This Slice

JUSTINIAN II.
KARAMAN

JUSTIN MARTYR
KARAMANIA

JUTE
KARAMNASA

JÜTERBOG
KARA MUSTAFA

JUTES
KARAMZIN, NIKOLAI MIKHAILOVICH

JUTIGALPA
KARA SEA

JUTLAND
KARASU-BAZAR

JUTURNA
KARATEGHIN

JUVENAL
KARAULI

JUVENCUS, GAIUS VETTIUS AQUILINUS
KAREN

JUVENILE OFFENDERS
KAREN-NI

JUVENTAS
KARIKAL

JUXON, WILLIAM
KARLI

K
KARLOWITZ

K
KARLSKRONA

KA‘BA, KAABA
KARLSRUHE

KABARDIA
KARLSTAD

KABBA
KARLSTADT

KABBABISH
KARMA

KABBALAH
KÁRMÁN, JÓZSEF

KABINDA
KARNAK

KABĪR
KARNAL

KABUL
KÁROLYI, ALOYS

KABUL RIVER
KAROSS

KABYLES
KARR, JEAN BAPTISTE ALPHONSE

KACH GANDAVA
KARRER, FELIX

KACHIN HILLS
KARROO

KADUR
KARS (province of Russia)

KAEMPFER, ENGELBRECHT
KARS (town of Russia)

KAFFA
KARSHI

KAFFIR BREAD
KARST

KAFFIRS
KARSTEN, KARL JOHANN BERNHARD

KAFFRARIA
KARTIKEYA

KAFIRISTAN
KARUN

KAGERA
KARWAR

KAHLUR
KARWI

KAHN, GUSTAVE
KARYOGAMY

KAHNIS, KARL FRIEDRICH AUGUST
KASAI

K’AI-FÊNG FU
KASBEK

KAILAS
KASHAN

KAIN
KASHGAR

KAIRA
KASHI

KAIRAWAN
KASHMIR

KAISERSLAUTERN
KASHMIRI

KAISERSWERTH
KASHUBES

KAITHAL
KASIMOV

KAKAPO
KASSA

KAKAR
KASSALA

KALA-AZAR
KASSASSIN

KALABAGH
KASSITES

KALACH
KASTAMUNI

KALAHANDI
KASTORIA

KALAHARI DESERT
KASUR

KALAMATA
KATAGUM

KALAMAZOO
KATANGA

KALAPUYA
KATER, HENRY

KALAT
KATHA

KALAT-I-GHILZAI
KATHIAWAR

KALB, JOHANN
KATKOV, MICHAEL NIKIFOROVICH

KALCKREUTH, FRIEDRICH ADOLF
KATMANDU

KALCKREUTH, LEOPOLD
KATO, TAKA-AKIRA

2

KALEIDOSCOPE
KATRINE, LOCH

KALERGIS, DIMITRI
KATSENA

KALEWALA
KATSURA, TARO

KALGAN
KATTERFELTO, GUSTAVUS

KALGOORLIE
KATTOWITZ

KALI
KATWA

KĀLIDĀSA
KATYDID

KALIMPONG
KAUFBEUREN

KALINGA
KAUFFMANN, [MARIA ANNA] ANGELICA

KALINJAR
KAUFMANN, CONSTANTINE PETROVICH

KALIR [QALIR], ELEAZER
KAUKAUNA

KALISCH, ISIDOR
KAULBACH, WILHELM VON

KALISCH, MARCUS
KAUNITZ-RIETBURG, WENZEL ANTON

KALISPEL
KAUP, JOHANN JAKOB

KALISZ (government of Poland)
KAURI PINE

KALISZ (town of Poland)
KAVA

KALK
KAVADH

KALKAS
KAVALA

KALKBRENNER, FRIEDRICH WILHELM
KAVANAGH, ARTHUR MACMORROUGH

KÁLLAY, BENJAMIN VON
KAVANAGH, JULIA

KALMAR
KAVASS

KALMUCK
KAVIRONDO

KALNÓKY, GUSTAV SIEGMUND
KAW

KALOCSA
KAWARDHA

KALPI
KAY, JOHN

KALUGA (government of Russia)
KAY, JOSEPH

KALUGA (town of Russia)
KAYAK

KALYAN
KAYASTH

KAMA
KAYE, SIR JOHN WILLIAM

KĀMALĀ
KAYSER, FRIEDRICH HEINRICH EMANUEL

KAMCHATKA
KAY-SHUTTLEWORTH, SIR JAMES PHILLIPS

KAME
KAZALA

KAMENETS PODOLSKIY
KAZAÑ (government of Russia)

KAMENZ
KAZAÑ (town of Russia)

KAMES, HENRY HOME
KĀZERŪN

KAMMIN
KAZINCZY, FERENCZ

KAMPEN
KAZVIN

KAMPTEE
KEAN, EDMUND

KAMRUP
KEANE, JOHN JOSEPH

KAMYSHIN
KEARNEY

KANAKA
KEARNY, PHILIP

KANARA
KEARNY

KANARESE
KEARY, ANNIE

KANARIS, CONSTANTINE
KEATE, JOHN

KANAUJ
KEATS, JOHN

KANDAHAR
KEBLE, JOHN

KANDI
KECSKEMÉT

KANDY
KEDDAH

KANE, ELISHA KENT
KEDGEREE

KANE (Pennsylvania, U.S.A.)
KEEL

KANGAROO
KEELEY, MARY ANNE

KANGAROO-RAT
KEELING ISLANDS

KANGAVAR
KEEL-MOULDING

KANGRA
KEENE, CHARLES SAMUEL

KANISHKA
KEENE, LAURA

KANKAKEE
KEENE (New Hampshire, U.S.A.)

KANKER
KEEP, ROBERT PORTER

KANO
KEEP

KANSAS
KEEWATIN

KANSAS CITY (Kansas, U.S.A.)
KEF

KANSAS CITY (Missouri, U.S.A.)
KEHL

KANSK
KEIGHLEY

KAN-SUH
KEI ISLANDS

KANT, IMMANUEL
KEIM, KARL THEODOR

KANURI
KEITH (old Scottish family)

KAOLIN
KEITH, FRANCIS EDWARD JAMES

KAPUNDA
KEITH, GEORGE

KAPURTHALA
KEITH, GEORGE KEITH ELPHINSTONE

KARACHI
KEITH (burgh of Scotland)

KARAGEORGE
KEJ

KARA-HISSAR
KEKULÉ, FRIEDRICH AUGUST

KARA-HISSAR SHARKI
KELLER, ALBERT

KARAISKAKIS, GEORGES
KELLER, GOTTFRIED

KARAJICH, VUK STEFANOVICH
KELLER, HELEN ADAMS

KARA-KALPAKS
KELLERMANN, FRANÇOIS CHRISTOPHE DE

KARAKORUM
KELLGREN, JOHAN HENRIK

KARA-KUL
KELLOGG, CLARA LOUISE

KARA-KUM
KELLS

JUSTINIAN II., Rhinotmetus (669-711), East Roman emperor 685-695 and 704-711, succeeded his father Constantine

IV., at the age of sixteen. His reign was unhappy both at home and abroad. After a successful invasion he made a truce with the
Arabs, which admitted them to the joint possession of Armenia, Iberia and Cyprus, while by removing 12,000 Christian Maronites
from their native Lebanon, he gave the Arabs a command over Asia Minor of which they took advantage in 692 by conquering all
Armenia. In 688 Justinian decisively defeated the Bulgarians. Meanwhile the bitter dissensions caused in the Church by the
emperor, his bloody persecution of the Manichaeans, and the rapacity with which, through his creatures Stephanus and Theodatus,
he extorted the means of gratifying his sumptuous tastes and his mania for erecting costly buildings, drove his subjects into rebellion.
In 695 they rose under Leontius, and, after cutting off the emperor’s nose (whence his surname), banished him to Cherson in the
Crimea. Leontius, after a reign of three years, was in turn dethroned and imprisoned by Tiberius Absimarus, who next assumed the
purple. Justinian meanwhile had escaped from Cherson and married Theodora, sister of Busirus, khan of the Khazars. Compelled,
however, by the intrigues of Tiberius, to quit his new home, he fled to Terbelis, king of the Bulgarians. With an army of 15,000
horsemen Justinian suddenly pounced upon Constantinople, slew his rivals Leontius and Tiberius, with thousands of their partisans,
and once more ascended the throne in 704. His second reign was marked by an unsuccessful war against Terbelis, by Arab
victories in Asia Minor, by devastating expeditions sent against his own cities of Ravenna and Cherson, where he inflicted horrible
punishment upon the disaffected nobles and refugees, and by the same cruel rapacity towards his subjects. Conspiracies again
broke out: Bardanes, surnamed Philippicus, assumed the purple, and Justinian, the last of the house of Heraclius, was assassinated
in Asia Minor, December 711.

See E. Gibbon, Decline and Fall of the Roman Empire (ed. Bury, 1896), v. 179-183; J. B. Bury, The Later Roman

Empire (1889), ii. 320-330, 358-367.

JUSTIN MARTYR, one of the earliest and ablest Christian apologists, was born about 100 at Flavia Neapolis (anc.

Sichem), now Nablus, in Palestinian Syria (Samaria). His parents, according to his own account, were Pagans (Dial. c. Tryph.
28). He describes the course of his religious development in the introduction to the dialogue with the Jew Trypho, in which he
relates how chance intercourse with an aged stranger brought him to know the truth. Though this narrative is a mixture of truth and
fiction, it may be said with certainty that a thorough study of the philosophy of Peripatetics and Pythagoreans, Stoics and Platonists,

602

brought home to Justin the conviction that true knowledge was not to be found in them. On the other hand, he came to look upon
the Old Testament prophets as approved by their antiquity, sanctity, mystery and prophecies to be interpreters of the truth. To this,
as he tells us in another place (Apol. ii. 12), must be added the deep impression produced upon him by the life and death of Christ.
His conversion apparently took place at Ephesus; there, at any rate, he places his decisive interview with the old man, and there he
had those discussions with Jews and converts to Judaism, the results of which he in later years set down in his Dialogue. After his
conversion he retained his philosopher’s cloak (Euseb., Hist. Eccl. iv. 11. 8), the distinctive badge of the wandering professional
teacher of philosophy, and went about from place to place discussing the truths of Christianity in the hope of bringing educated
Pagans, as he himself had been brought, through philosophy to Christ. In Rome he made a fairly long stay, giving lectures in a class-
room of his own, though not without opposition from his fellow-teachers. Among his opponents was the Cynic Crescentius (Apol.
ii. 13). Eusebius (Hist. Eccl. iv. 16. 7-8) concludes somewhat hastily, from the statement of Justin and his disciple Tatian (Orat. ad
Graec. 19), that the accusation of Justin before the authorities, which led to his death, was due to Crescentius. But we know, from
the undoubtedly genuine Acta SS Justini et sociorum, that Justin suffered the death of a martyr under the prefect Rusticus between
163 and 167.

To form an opinion of Justin as a Christian and theologian, we must turn to his Apology and to the Dialogue with the Jew

Trypho, for the authenticity of all other extant works attributed to him is disputed with good reason. The Apology—it is more
correct to speak of one Apology than of two, for the second is only a continuation of the first, and dependent upon it—was written
in Rome about 150. In the first part Justin defends his fellow-believers against the charge of atheism and hostility to the state. He
then draws a positive demonstration of the truth of his religion from the effects of the new faith, and especially from the excellence of
its moral teaching, and concludes with a comparison of Christian and Pagan doctrines, in which the latter are set down with naïve
confidence as the work of demons. As the main support of his proof of the truth of Christianity appears his detailed demonstration
that the prophecies of the old dispensation, which are older than the Pagan poets and philosophers, have found their fulfilment in
Christianity. A third part shows, from the practices of their religious worship, that the Christians had in truth dedicated themselves to
God. The whole closes with an appeal to the princes, with a reference to the edict issued by Hadrian in favour of the Christians. In
the so-called Second Apology, Justin takes occasion from the trial of a Christian recently held in Rome to argue that the innocence
of the Christians was proved by the very persecutions.

Even as a Christian Justin always remained a philosopher. By his conscious recognition of the Greek philosophy as a preparation

for the truths of the Christian religion, he appears as the first and most distinguished in the long list of those who have endeavoured
to reconcile Christian with non-Christian culture. Christianity consists for him in the doctrines, guaranteed by the manifestation of the
Logos in the person of Christ, of God, righteousness and immortality, truths which have been to a certain extent foreshadowed in
the monotheistic religious philosophies. In this process the conviction of the reconciliation of the sinner with God, of the salvation of
the world and the individual through Christ, fell into the background before the vindication of supernatural truths intellectually
conceived. Thus Justin may give the impression of having rationalized Christianity, and of not having given it its full value as a religion
of salvation. It must not, however, be forgotten that Justin is here speaking as the apologist of Christianity to an educated Pagan
public, on whose philosophical view of life he had to base his arguments, and from whom he could not expect an intimate
comprehension of the religious position of Christians. That he himself had a thorough comprehension of it he showed in the
Dialogue with the Jew Trypho. Here, where he had to deal with the Judaism that believed in a Messiah, he was far better able to
do justice to Christianity as a revelation; and so we find that the arguments of this work are much more completely in harmony with
primitive Christian theology than those of the Apology. He also displays in this work a considerable knowledge of the Rabbinical
writings and a skilful polemical method which was surpassed by none of the later anti-Jewish writers.

Justin is a most valuable authority for the life of the Christian Church in the middle of the 2nd century. While we have elsewhere

no connected account of this, Justin’s Apology contains a few paragraphs (61 seq.), which give a vivid description of the public
worship of the Church and its method of celebrating the sacraments (Baptism and the Eucharist). And from this it is clear that
though, as a theologian, Justin wished to go his own way, as a believing Christian he was ready to make his standpoint that of the
Church and its baptismal confession of faith. His works are also of great value for the history of the New Testament writings. He
knows of no canon of the New Testament, i.e. no fixed and inclusive collection of the apostolic writings. His sources for the
teachings of Jesus are the “Memoirs of the Apostles,” by which are probably to be understood the Synoptic Gospels (without the
Gospel according to St John), which, according to his account, were read along with the prophetic writings at the public services.
From his writings we derive the impression of an amiable personality, who is honestly at pains to arrive at an understanding with his
opponents. As a theologian, he is of wide sympathies; as a writer, he is often diffuse and somewhat dull. There are not many traces
of any particular literary influence of his writings upon the Christian Church, and this need not surprise us. The Church as a whole
took but little interest in apologetics and polemics, nay, had at times even an instinctive feeling that in these controversies that which
she held holy might easily suffer loss. Thus Justin’s writings were not much read, and at the present time both the Apology and the
Dialogue are preserved in but a single MS. (cod. Paris, 450, a.d. 1364).

Bibliography.—The editions of Robert Étienne (Stephanus) (1551); H. Sylburg (1593); F. Morel (1615); Prudentius

Maranuis (1742) are superseded by J. C. T. Otto, Justini philosophi et martyris opera quae feruntur omnia (3rd ed. 5
vols., Jena, 1876-1881). This edition contains besides the Apologies (vol. i.) and the Dialogue (vol. ii.) the following writings:
Speech to the Greeks (Oratio); Address to the Greeks (Cohortatio): On the Monarchy of God; Epistle to Diognetus;
Fragments on the Resurrection and other Fragments; Exposition of the True Faith; Epistle to Zenas and Serenus;
Refutation of certain Doctrines of Aristotle; Questions and Answers to the Orthodox; Questions of Christians to
Pagans; Questions of Pagans to Christians. None of these writings, not even the Cohortatio, which former critics ascribed
to Justin, can be attributed to him. The authenticity of the Dialogue has occasionally been disputed, but without reason. For a
handy edition of the Apology see G. Krüger, Die Apologien Justins des Märtyrers (3rd ed. Tübingen, 1904). There is a good
German translation with a comprehensive commentary by H. Veil (1894). For English translations consult the “Oxford Library
of the Fathers” and the “Ante-Nicene Library.” Full information about Justin’s history and views may be had from the
following monographs: C. Semisch, Justin der Märtyrer (2 vols., 1840-1842); J. Donaldson, A Critical History of Christian
Literature and Doctrine, vol. 2 (1866); C. E. Freppel, St Justin (3rd ed., 1886); Moritz von Engelhardt, Das Christentum
Justins des Märtyrers (1878); T. M. Wehofer, Die Apologie Justins des Philosophen und Märtyrers in

603

litterarhistorischer Beziehung zum ersten Male untersucht (1897); Alfred Leonhard Feder, Justins des Märtyrers Lehre
von Jesus Christus (1906). On the critical questions raised by the spurious writings consult W. Gaul, Die
Abfassungsverhältnisse der pseudo-justinischen Cohortatio ad Graecos (1902); Adolf Harnack, Diodor von Tarsus.
Vier pseudo-justinische Schriften als Eigentum Diodors nachgewiesen (1901).

(G. K.)

JUTE, a vegetable fibre now occupying a position in the manufacturing scale inferior only to cotton and flax. The term jute

appears to have been first used in 1746, when the captain of the “Wake” noted in his log that he had sent on shore “60 bales of
gunney with all the jute rope” (New Eng. Dict. s.v.). In 1795 W. Roxburgh sent to the directors of the East India Company a bale
of the fibre which he described as “the jute of the natives.” Importations of the substance had been made at earlier times under the
name of pāt, an East Indian native term by which the fibre continued to be spoken of in England till the early years of the 19th
century, when it was supplanted by the name it now bears. This modern name appears to be derived from jhot or jhout (Sansk.
jhat), the vernacular name by which the substance is known in the Cuttack district, where the East India Company had extensive
roperies when Roxburgh first used the term.

Fig. 1.—Capsules of Jute Plants. a, Corchorus capsularis; b, C. olitorius.

The fibre is obtained from two species of Corchorus (nat. ord. Tiliaceae), C. capsularis and C. olitorius, the products of both

being so essentially alike that neither in commerce nor agriculture is any distinction made between them. These and various other
species of Corchorus are natives of Bengal, where they have been cultivated from very remote times for economic purposes,
although there is reason to believe that the cultivation did not originate in the northern parts of India. The two species cultivated for
jute fibre are in all respects very similar to each other, except in their fructification and the relatively greater size attained by C.
capsularis. They are annual plants from 5 to 10 ft. high, with a cylindrical stalk as thick as a man’s finger, and hardly branching
except near the top. The light-green leaves are from 4 to 5 in. long by 1½ in. broad above the base, and taper upward into a fine
point; the edges are serrated; the two lower teeth are drawn out into bristle-like points. The small whitish-yellow flowers are
produced in clusters of two or three opposite the leaves.

The capsules or seed-pods in the case of C. capsularis are globular, rough and wrinkled, while in C. olitorius they are slender,

quill-like cylinders (about 2 in. long), a very marked distinction, as may be noted from fig. 1, in which a and b show the capsules of
C. capsularis and C. olitorius respectively. Fig. 2 represents a flowering top of C. olitorius.

Both species are cultivated in India, not only on account of their fibre, but also for the sake of their leaves, which are there

extensively used as a pot-herb. The use of C. olitorius for the latter purpose dates from very ancient times, if it may be identified,
as some suppose, with the mallows (מלוח) mentioned in Job xxx. 4; hence the name Jew’s mallow. It is certain that the Greeks used
this plant as a pot-herb; and by many other nations around the shores of the Mediterranean this use of it was, and is still, common.
Throughout Bengal the name by which the plants when used as edible vegetables are recognized is nalitā; when on the other hand
they are spoken of as fibre-producers it is generally under the name pāt. The cultivation of C. capsularis is most prevalent in
central and eastern Bengal, while in the neighbourhood of Calcutta, where, however, the area under cultivation is limited, C.

604

olitorius is principally grown. The fibre known as China jute or Tien-tsin jute is the product of another plant, Abutilon Avicennae,
a member of the Mallow family.

Cultivation and Cropping.—Attempts have been made to grow the jute plant in America, Egypt, Africa and other places, but

up to the present the fibre has proved much inferior to that obtained from plants grown in India. Here the cultivation of the plant
extends from the Hugli through eastern and northern Bengal. The successful cultivation of the plant demands a hot, moist climate,
with a fair amount of rain. Too much rain at the beginning of the season is detrimental to the growth, while a very dry season is
disastrous. The climate of eastern and northern Bengal appears to be ideal for the growth of the plant.

The quality of the fibre and the produce per acre depend in a measure on the preparation of the soil. The ground should be

ploughed about four times and all weeds removed. The seed is then sown broadcast as in the case of flax. It is only within quite
recent years that any attention has been paid to the selection of the seed. The following extract from Capital (Jan. 17, 1907)
indicates the new interest taken in it.

“Jute seed experiments are being continued and the report for 1906 has been issued. The object of these experiments is, of

course, to obtain a better class of jute seed by growing plants, especially for no other purpose than to obtain their seed. The
agricultural department has about 300 maunds (25,000 ℔) of selected seed for distribution this year. The selling price is to be
Rs. 10 per maund. The agricultural department of the government of Bengal are now fully alive to the importance of fostering
the jute industry by showing conclusively that attention to scientific agriculture will make two maunds of jute grow where only
one maund grew before. Let them go on (as they will) till all the ryots are thoroughly indoctrinated into the new system.”

The time of sowing extends from the middle of March to the middle of June, while the reaping, which depends upon the time of

sowing and upon the weather, is performed from the end of June to the middle of October. The crop is said to be ready for
gathering when the flowers appear; if gathered before, the fibre is weak, while if left until the seed is ripe, the fibre is stronger, but is
coarser and lacks the characteristic lustre.

The fibre is separated from the stalks by a process of retting similar to that for flax and hemp. In certain districts of Bengal it is

the practice to stack the crop for a few days previous to retting in order to allow the leaves to dry and to drop off the stalks. It is
stated that the colour of the fibre is darkened if the leaves are allowed to remain on during the process of retting. It is also thought
that the drying of the plants before retting facilitates the separation of the fibre. Any simple operation which improves the colour of
the fibre or shortens the operation of retting is worthy of consideration. The benefits to be derived from the above process,
however, cannot be great, for the bundles are usually taken direct to the pools and streams. The period necessary for the
completion of the retting process varies according to the temperature and to the properties of the water, and may occupy from two
days to a month. After the first few days of immersion the stalks are examined daily to test the progress of the retting. When the
fibres are easily separated from the stalk, the operation is complete and the bundles should be withdrawn. The following description
of the retting of jute is taken from Royle’s Fibrous Plants of India:—

“The proper point being attained, the native operator, standing up to his middle in water, takes as many of the sticks in his

hands as he can grasp, and removing a small portion of the bark from the ends next the roots, and grasping them together, he
strips off the whole with a little management from end to end, without breaking either stem or fibre. Having prepared a certain
quantity into this half state, he next proceeds to wash off: this is done by taking a large handful; swinging it round his head he
dashes it repeatedly against the surface of the water, drawing it through towards him, so as to wash off the impurities; then,
with a dexterous throw he fans it out on the surface of the water and carefully picks off all remaining black spots. It is now
wrung out so as to remove as much water as possible, and then hung up on lines prepared on the spot, to dry in the sun.”

The separated fibre is then made up into bundles ready for sending to one of the jute presses. The jute is carefully sorted into

different qualities, and then each lot is subjected to an enormous hydraulic pressure from which it emerges in the shape of the well-
known bales, each weighing 400 ℔.

The crop naturally depends upon the quality of the soil, and upon the attention which the fibre has received in its various stages;

the yield per acre varies in different districts. Three bales per acre, or 1200 ℔ is termed a 100% crop, but the usual quantity
obtained is about 2.6 bales per acre. Sometimes the crop is stated in lakhs of 100,000 bales each. The crop in 1906 reached
nearly 9,000,000 bales, and in 1907 nearly 10,000,000 was reached. The following particulars were issued on the 19th of
September 1906 by Messrs. W. F. Souter & Co., Dundee:—

Year.
Actual
acreage.

Estimated yield

(100%

equal 3 bales

per acre).

Estimated

total
crop.
Bales.

Shipment to Europe.
Shipment to America.
Supplies to
Indian mills
and local

consumption.

Out-turn
total crop.

Bales.

Jute.
Bales.

Cuttings.

Bales.

Jute.
Bales.

Cuttings.

Bales.

1901—1st
2,216,500
94% =
6,250,000

Final
2,249,000
96% =
6,500,000
3,528,691
54,427
295,921
426,331
3,100,000 =
7,405,370

1902—1st
2,200,000
80% =
5,280.000

Final
2,200,000
80% =
5,280,000
2,773,621
39,019
230,415
207,999
2,600,000 =
5,851,054

1903—1st
2,100,000
85% =
5,400,000

Final
2,250,000
93¾% =
6,500,000
3,161,791
59,562
329,048
236,959
3,650,000 =
7,437,360

1904—1st
2,700,000
87½% =
7,100,000

Final
2,850,000
85% =
7,400,000
2,939,940
44,002
253,882
290,854
3,475,782 =
7,004,460

1905—1st
3,163,500
87% =
8,250,000

Final
3,145,000
87% =
8,200,000
3,483,315
63,118
347,974
245,044
4,018,523 =
8,233,358

Outlying
200,000

Madras
75,384

1906—1st
3,271,400
87% =
8,713,000

Outlying
67,000
Madras
100,000

Final
3,336,400

8,736,220

(Outlying Districts and Madras, say 250,000 bales

additional)

Estimated consumption of jute 1906-1907.

In Europe
Bales per annum.

Scotland
1,250,000

England
20,000

Ireland
25,000

France
475,000

Belgium
120,000

Germany
750,000

Austria and Bohemia
262,000

Norway and Sweden
62,500

Russia
180,000

Holland
25,000

Spain
90,000

Italy
160,000

———
3,419,500
bales

In America
600,000

———
600,000
”

In India—

Mills
3,900,000

Local
500,000

————
4,400,000
”

———————

8,419,500
bales

Statistics of consumption of jute, rejections and cuttings.

Consumption.
1894.
Bales.

1904.
Bales.

1906.
Bales.

United Kingdom
1,200,000
1,200,000
1,295,000

Continent
1,100,000
1,800,000
2,124,500

America
500,000
500,000
600,000

Indian mills
1,500,000
2,900,000
3,900,000

Local Indian consumption
500,000
500,000
500,000

Total jute crop consumption
4,800,000
6,900,000
8,419,500

A number of experiments in jute cultivation were made during 1906, and the report showed that very encouraging results were

obtained from land manured with cow-dung. If more scientific attention be given to the cultivation it is quite possible that what is
now considered as 100% yield may be exceeded.

Characteristics.—The characters by which qualities of jute are judged are colour, lustre, softness, strength, length, firmness,

uniformity and absence of roots. The best qualities are of a clear whitish-yellow colour, with a fine silky lustre, soft and smooth to
the touch, and fine, long and uniform in fibre. When the fibre is intended for goods in the natural colour it is essential that it should be
of a light shade and uniform, but if intended for yarns which are to be dyed a dark shade, the colour is not so important. The
cultivated plant yields a fibre with a length of from 6 to 10 ft., but in exceptional cases it has been known to reach 14 or 15 ft. in
length. The fibre is decidedly inferior to flax and hemp in strength and tenacity; and, owing to a peculiarity in its microscopic
structure, by which the walls of the separate cells composing the fibre vary much in thickness at different points, the single strands of
fibre are of unequal strength. Recently prepared fibre is always stronger, more lustrous, softer and whiter than such as has been
stored for some time—age and exposure rendering it brown in colour and harsh and brittle in quality. Jute, indeed, is much more
woody in texture than either flax or hemp, a circumstance which may be easily demonstrated by its behaviour under appropriate
reagents; and to that fact is due the change in colour and character it undergoes on exposure to the air. The fibre bleaches with
facility, up to a certain point, sufficient to enable it to take brilliant and delicate shades of dye colour, but it is with great difficulty
brought to a pure white by bleaching. A very striking and remarkable fact, which has much practical interest, is its highly
hygroscopic nature. While in a dry position and atmosphere it may not possess more than 6% of moisture, under damp conditions it
will absorb as much as 23%.

Sir G. Watt, in his Dictionary of the Economic Products of India, mentions the following eleven varieties of jute fibre:

Serajganji, Narainganji, Desi, Deora, Uttariya, Deswāl, Bākrabadi, Bhatial, Karimginji, Mirganji and Jungipuri. There are
several other varieties of minor importance. The first four form the four classes into which the commercial fibre is divided, and
they are commonly known as Serajgunge, Naraingunge, Daisee and Dowrah. Serajgunge is a soft fibre, but it is superior in
colour, which ranges from white to grey. Naraingunge is a strong fibre, possesses good spinning qualities, and is very suitable
for good warp yarns. Its colour, which is not so high as Serajgunge, begins with a cream shade and approaches red at the
roots. All the better class yarns are spun from these two kinds. Daisee is similar to Serajgunge in softness, is of good quality
and of great length; its drawback is the low colour, and hence it is not so suitable for using in natural colour. It is, however, a

605

valuable fibre for carpet yarns, especially for dark yarns. Dowrah is a strong, harsh and low quality fibre, and is used
principally for heavy wefts. Each class is subdivided according to the quality and colour of the material, and each class
receives a distinctive mark called a baler’s mark. Thus, the finest fibres may be divided as follows:—

Superfine
first marks.

Extra fine
first marks
1st, 2nd and 3rd numbers.

Superior
first marks
”
”
”

Standard
”
”
”
”

Good
”
”
”
”

Ordinary
”
”
”
”

Good
second marks
”
”
”

Ordinary
”
”
”
”

The lower qualities are, naturally, divided into fewer varieties.

Fig. 2.—Corchorus olitorius.

Each baler has his own marks, the fibres of which are guaranteed equal in equality to some standard mark. It would be

impossible to give a list of the different marks, for there are hundreds, and new marks are constantly being added. A list of all
the principal marks is issued in book form by the Calcutta Jute Baler’s association.

The relative prices of the different classes depend upon the crop, upon the demand and upon the quality of the fibre; in 1905

the prices of Daisee jute and First Marks were practically the same, although the former is always considered inferior to the
latter. It does not follow that a large crop of jute will result in low prices, for the year 1906-1907 was not only a record one for
crops, but also for prices. R. F. C. grade has been as high as £40 per ton, while its lowest recorded price is £12. Similarly the
price for First Marks reached £29, 15s. in 1906 as compared with £9, 5s. per ton in 1897. The following table shows a few
well-known grades with the average prices during December for the years 1903, 1904, 1905 and 1906.

Class.
Dec. 1903.
Dec. 1904.
Dec. 1905.
Dec. 1906.

£
s.
d.
£
s.
d.
£
s.
d.
£
s.
d.

First marks
12 15
0
16
0
0
19 15
0
27 15
0

Blacks S C C
11
2
6
14
5
0
17 15
0
20 15
0

Red S C C
12
0
0
14 17
6
18 15
0
23 15
0

Native rejections
8
2
6
—
14 10
0
15 17
6

S 4 group
—
—
25 10
0
38
0
0

R F block D group
—
—
—
36
0
0

R F circle D group
14 10
0
16 15
0
21 10
0
—

R F D group
11 15
0
14
2
6
17 12
6
22
0
0

N B green D
14
5
0
—
21
0
0
32
0
0

Heart T 4
14 12
6
17 10
0
22 10
0
34
0
0

Heart T 5
14 12
6
17 10
0
21
0
0
31
0
0

Daisee 2
12 17
6
—
18 15
0
25 10
0

Daisee assortment
12 10
0
14 17
6
18
5
0
—

Mixed cuttings
4
5
0
—
10
0
0
10
0
0

Jute Manufacture.—Long before jute came to occupy a prominent place amongst the textile fibres of Europe, it formed the raw

material of a large and important industry throughout the regions of Eastern Bengal. The Hindu population made the material up into
cordage, paper and cloth, the chief use of the latter being in the manufacture of gunny bags. Indeed, up to 1830-1840 there was
little or no competition with hand labour for this class of material. The process of weaving gunnies for bags and other coarse articles
by these hand-loom weavers has been described as follows:—

“Seven sticks or chattee weaving-posts, called tanā parā or warp, are fixed upon the ground, occupying the length equal to

the measure of the piece to be woven, and a sufficient number of twine or thread is wound on them as warp called tanā. The
warp is taken up and removed to the weaving machine. Two pieces of wood are placed at two ends, which are tied to the
ohari and okher or roller; they are made fast to the khoti. The belut or treadle is put into the warp; next to that is the sarsul;
a thin piece of wood is laid upon the warp, called chupari or regulator. There is no sley used in this, nor is a shuttle necessary;
in the room of the latter a stick covered with thread called singa is thrown into the warp as woof, which is beaten in by a piece
of plank called beyno, and as the cloth is woven it is wound up to the roller. Next to this is a piece of wood called khetone,
which is used for smoothing and regulating the woof; a stick is fastened to the warp to keep the woof straight.”

Gunny cloth is woven of numerous qualities, according to the purpose to which it is devoted. Some kinds are made close and dense
in texture, for carrying such seed as poppy or rape and sugar; others less close are used for rice, pulses, and seeds of like size, and
coarser and opener kinds again are woven for the outer cover of packages and for the sails of country boats. There is a thin close-
woven cloth made and used as garments among the females of the aboriginal tribes near the foot of the Himalayas, and in various
localities a cloth of pure jute or of jute mixed with cotton is used as a sheet to sleep on, as well as for wearing purposes. To indicate
the variety of uses to which jute is applied, the following quotation may be cited from the official report of Hem Chunder Kerr as
applying to Midnapur.

“The articles manufactured from jute are principally (1) gunny bags; (2) string, rope and cord; (3) kampa, a net-like bag for

carrying wood or hay on bullocks; (4) chat, a strip of stuff for tying bales of cotton or cloth; (5) dola, a swing on which infants
are rocked to sleep; (6) shika, a kind of hanging shelf for little earthen pots, &c.; (7) dulina, a floor-cloth; (8) beera, a small
circular stand for wooden plates used particularly in poojahs; (9) painter’s brush and brush for white-washing; (10) ghunsi, a
waist-band worn next to the skin; (11) gochh-dari, a hair-band worn by women; (12) mukbar, a net bag used as muzzle for
cattle; (13) parchula, false hair worn by players; (14) rakhi-bandhan, a slender arm-band worn at the Rakhi-poornima
festival; and (15) dhup, small incense sticks burned at poojahs.”

The fibre began to receive attention in Great Britain towards the close of the 18th century, and early in the 19th century it was

spun into yarn and woven into cloth in the town of Abingdon. It is claimed that this was the first British town to manufacture the
material. For years small quantities of jute were imported into Great Britain and other European countries and into America, but it
was not until the year 1832 that the fibre may be said to have made any great impression in Great Britain. The first really practical
experiments with the fibre were made in this year in Chapelshade Works, Dundee, and these experiments proved to be the
foundation of an enormous industry. It is interesting to note that the site of Chapelshade Works was in 1907 cleared for the erection
of a large new technical college.

In common with practically all new industries progress was slow for a time, but once the value of the fibre and the cloth

produced from it had become known the development was more rapid. The pioneers of the work were confronted with many
difficulties; most people condemned the fibre and the cloth, many warps were discarded as unfit for weaving, and any attempt to
mix the fibre with flax, tow or hemp was considered a form of deception. The real cause of most of these objections was the fact
that suitable machinery and methods of treatment had not been developed for preparing yarns from this useful fibre. Warden in his
Linen Trade says:—

“For years after its introduction the principal spinners refused to have anything to do with jute, and cloth made of it long

retained a tainted reputation. Indeed, it was not until Mr. Rowan got the Dutch government, about 1838, to substitute jute yarns
for those made from flax in the manufacture of the coffee bagging for their East Indian possessions, that the jute trade in
Dundee got a proper start. That fortunate circumstance gave an impulse to the spinning of the fibre which it never lost, and
since that period its progress has been truly astonishing.”

The demand for this class of bagging, which is made from fine hessian yarns, is still great. These fine Rio hessian yarns form an

important branch of the Dundee trade, and in some weeks during 1906 as many as 1000 bales were despatched to Brazil, besides
numerous quantities to other parts of the world.

For many years Great Britain was the only European country engaged in the manufacture of jute, the great seat being Dundee.

Gradually, however, the trade began to extend, and now almost every European country is partly engaged in the trade.

The success of the mechanical method of spinning and weaving of jute in Dundee and district led to the introduction of textile

machinery into and around Calcutta. The first mill to be run there by power was started in 1854, while by 1872 three others had
been established. In the next ten years no fewer than sixteen new mills were erected and equipped with modern machinery from
Great Britain, while in 1907 there were thirty-nine mills engaged in the industry. The expansion of the Indian power trade may be
gathered from the following particulars of the number of looms and spindles from 1892 to 1906. In one or two cases the number of
spindles is obtained approximately by reckoning twenty spindles per loom, which is about the average for the Indian mills.

Year.
Looms.
Spindles.

1892-3
8,479
177,732

1893-4
9,082
189,144

1894-5
9,504
197,673

606

1895-6
10,071
212,595

1896-7
12,276
254,610

1897-8
12,737
271,363

1898-9
13,323
277,398

1899-1900
14,021
293,218

1900-01
15,242
315,264

1901-02
16,059
329,300

1902-03
17,091
350,120

1904*
19,901
398,020**

1905*
21,318
426,360**

1906*
26,799
520,980**

* End of calendar year, the remainder being taken to the 31st of March, the end of financial year.

** Approximate number of spindles.

The Calcutta looms are engaged for the most part with a few varieties of the commoner classes of jute fabrics, but the success in

this direction has been really remarkable. Dundee, on the other hand, turns out not only the commoner classes of fabrics, but a very
large variety of other fabrics. Amongst these may be mentioned the following: Hessian, bagging, tarpaulin, sacking, scrims, Brussels
carpets, Wilton carpets, imitation Brussels, and several other types of carpets, rugs and matting, in addition to a large variety of
fabrics of which jute forms a part. Calcutta has certainly taken a large part of the trade which Dundee held in its former days, but
the continually increasing demands for jute fabrics for new purposes have enabled Dundee to enter new markets and so to take part
in the prosperity of the trade.

The development of the trade with countries outside India from 1828 to 1906 may be seen by the following figures of exports:—

Average
per year
from
1828
to
1832-33
11,800
cwt.

”
”
”
1833-34
”
1837-38
67,483
”

”
”
”
1838-39
”
1842-43
117,047
”

”
”
”
1843-44
”
1847-48
234,055
”

”
”
”
1848-49
”
1852-53
439,850
”

”
”
”
1853-54
”
1857-58
710,826
”

”
”
”
1858-59
”
1862-63
969,724
”

”
”
”
1863-64
”
1867-68
2,628,110
”

”
”
”
1868-69
”
1872-73
4,858,162
”

”
”
”
1873-74
”
1877-78
5,362,267
”

”
”
”
1878-79
”
1882-83
7,274,000
”

”
”
”
1883-84
”
1887-88
8,223,859
”

”
”
”
1888-89
”
1892-93
10,372,991
”

”
”
”
1893-94
”
1897-98
12,084,292
”

”
”
”
1898-99
”
1902-03
11,959,189
”

”
”
”
1903-04
”
1905-06
13,693,090
”

The subjoined table shows the extent of the trade from an agricultural, as well as from a manufacturing, point of view. The

difference between the production and the exports represents the native consumption, for very little jute is sent overland. The figures
are taken to the 31st of March, the end of the Indian financial year.

Year.
Acres under
cultivation.

Production

in cwt.

Exports by
sea in cwt.

1893
2,181,334
20,419,000
10,537,512

1894
2,230,570
17,863,000
8,690,133

1895
2,275,335
21,944,400
12,976,791

1896
2,248,593
19,825,000
12,266,781

1897
2,215,105
20,418,000
11,464,356

1898
2,159,908
24,425,000
15,023,325

1899
1,690,739
19,050,000
9,864,545

1900
2,070,668
19,329,000
9,725,245

1901
2,102,236
23,307,000
12,414,552

1902
2,278,205
26,564,000
14,755,115

1903
2,142,700
23,489,000
13,036,486

1904
2,275,050
25,861,000
13,721,447

1905
2,899,700
26,429,000
12,875,312

1906
3,181,600
29,945,000
14,581,307

Manufacture.—In their general features the spinning and weaving of jute fabrics do not differ essentially as to machinery and

processes from those employed in the manufacture of hemp and heavy flax goods. Owing, however, to the woody and brittle nature
of the fibre, it has to undergo a preliminary treatment peculiar to itself. The pioneers of the jute industry, who did not understand this
necessity, or rather who did not know how the woody and brittle character of the fibre could be remedied, were greatly perplexed
by the difficulties they had to encounter, the fibre spinning badly into a hard, rough and hairy yarn owing to the splitting and breaking
of the fibre. This peculiarity of jute, coupled also with the fact that the machinery on which it was first spun, although quite suitable
for the stronger and more elastic fibres for which it was designed, required certain modifications to suit it to the weaker jute, was
the cause of many annoyances and failures in the early days of the trade.

607

Fig. 3.—Jute Opener. (The three machines shown in this article are made by Urquhart, Lindsay & Co., Ltd., Dundee.)

The first process in the manufacture of jute is termed batching. Batch setting is the first part of this operation; it consists of

selecting the different kinds or qualities of jute for any predetermined kind of yarn. The number of bales for a batch seldom
exceeds twelve, indeed it is generally about six, and of these there may be three, four or even more varieties or marks. The
“streaks” or “heads” of jute as they come from the bale are in a hard condition in consequence of having been subjected to a
high hydraulic pressure during baling; it is therefore necessary to soften them before any further process is entered. The
streaks are sometimes partly softened or crushed by means of a steam hammer during the process of opening the bale, then
taken to the “strikers-up” where the different varieties are selected and hung on pins, and then taken to the jute softening
machine. The more general practice, however, is to employ what is termed a “bale opener,” or “jute crusher.” The essential
parts of one type of bale opener are three specially shaped rollers, the peripheries of which contain a number of small knobs.
Two of these rollers are supported in the same horizontal plane of the framework, while the third or top roller is kept in close
contact by means of weights and springs acting on each end of the arbor. Another type of machine termed the three pair roller
jute opener is illustrated in fig. 3. The layers from the different bales are laid upon the feed cloth which carries them up to the
rollers, between which the layers are crushed and partly separated. The proximity of the weighted roller or rollers to the fixed
ones depends upon the thickness of material passing through the machine. The fibre is delivered by what is called the delivery
cloth, and the batcher usually selects small streaks of about 1½ ℔ to 2 ℔ weight each and passes them on to the attendant or
feeder of the softening machine. These small streaks are now laid as regularly as possible upon the feed-cloth of the softening
machine, a general view of which is shown in fig. 4. The fibre passes between a series of fluted rollers, each pair of which is
kept in contact by spiral springs as shown in the figure. The standard number of pairs is sixty-three, but different lengths
obtain. There is also a difference in the structure of the flutes, some being straight, and others spiral, and each pair may or may
not contain the same number of flutes. The springs allow the top rollers of each pair to rise as the material passes through the
machine. Advantage is taken of this slight upward and downward movement of the top rollers to automatically regulate the
flow of water and oil upon the material. The apparatus for this function is placed immediately over the 11th and 12th rollers of
the softening machine and an idea of its construction may be gathered from fig. 5. In many cases the water and oil are applied
by less automatic, but equally effective, means. The main object is to see that the liquids are distributed evenly while the fibre
is passing through, and to stop the supply when the machine stops or when no fibre is passing. The uniform moistening of the
fibre in this machine facilitates the subsequent operations, indeed the introduction of this preliminary process (originally by
hand) constituted the first important step in the practical solution of the difficulties of jute spinning. The relative quantities of oil
and water depend upon the quality of the batch. Sometimes both whale and mineral oils are used, but in most cases the whale
oil is omitted. About 1 to 1¼ gallons of oil is the usual amount given per bale of 400 ℔ of jute, while the quantity of water per
bale varies from 3 to 7 gallons. The delivery attendants remove the streaks, give them a twist to facilitate future handling, and
place them on what are termed jute barrows. The streaks are now handed over to the cutters who cut off the roots, and finally
the material is allowed to remain for twelve to twenty-four hours to allow the mixture of oil and water to thoroughly spread
over the fibre.

Fig. 4.—Jute Softening Machine.

1

Fig. 5.—Improved Batching Gear.

When the moisture has spread sufficiently, the material is taken to the “breaker card,” the first machine in the preparing

department. A certain weight of jute, termed a “dollop,” is laid upon the feed cloth for each revolution of the latter. The fibre,
which should be arranged on the sheet as evenly as possible, is carried up by the feed cloth and passes between the feed roller
and the shell on to the large cylinder. This cylinder, which has a high surface speed, carries part of the fibre towards the
workers and strippers; the surface speed of the workers being much slower than that of the cylinder. The pins in the two
rollers oppose each other, those of the workers being “back-set,” and this arrangement, combined with the relative angle of the
pins, and the difference in the surface speeds of the two rollers, results in part of the fibre being broken and carried round by
the worker towards the stripper. This, as its name implies, strips the fibre off the worker, and carries it round to the cylinder.
The pins of the stripper and cylinder point in the same direction, but since the surface speed of the cylinder is much greater
than the surface speed of the stripper, it follows that the fibre is combed between the two, and that part is carried forward by
the cylinder to be reworked. The strippers and workers are in pairs, of which there may be two or more. After passing the last
pair of workers and strippers the fibre is carried forward towards the doffing roller, the pins of which are back-set, and the
fibre is removed from the cylinder by the doffer, from which it passes between the drawing and pressing rollers into the
conductor, and finally between the delivery and pressing rollers into the sliver can. It may be mentioned that more or less
breaking takes place between each pair of rollers, the pins of which are opposed, and...