Encyclopdia Britannica Volume VII Slice VII Crocoite to Cuba

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Volume 7, Slice 7, by Various

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Title: Encyclopaedia Britannica, 11th Edition, Volume 7, Slice 7
"Crocoite" to "Cuba"

Author: Various

Release Date: January 20, 2012 [EBook #38622]

Language: English

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THE ENCYCLOPÆDIA BRITANNICA

A DICTIONARY OF ARTS, SCIENCES, LITERATURE AND

GENERAL INFORMATION

ELEVENTH EDITION

VOLUME VII SLICE VII

Crocoite to Cuba

Articles in This Slice

CROCOITE
CROWE, EYRE EVANS

CROCUS
CROWE, SIR JOSEPH ARCHER

CROESUS
CROW INDIANS

CROFT, SIR HERBERT
CROWLAND

CROFT, SIR JAMES
CROWLEY, ROBERT

CROFT, WILLIAM
CROWN (coin)

CROFTER
CROWN and CORONET

CROKER, JOHN WILSON
CROWN DEBT

CROKER, RICHARD
CROWNE, JOHN

CROKER, THOMAS CROFTON
CROWN LAND

CROLL, JAMES
CROWN POINT

CROLY, GEORGE
CROWTHER, SAMUEL ADJAI

CROMAGNON RACE
CROYDON

CROMARTY, GEORGE MACKENZIE
CROZAT, PIERRE

CROMARTY
CROZET ISLANDS

CROMARTY FIRTH
CROZIER, WILLIAM

CROME, JOHN
CROZIER

CROMER, EVELYN BARING
CRUCIAL

CROMER
CRUCIFERAE

CROMORNE
CRUDEN, ALEXANDER

CROMPTON, SAMUEL
CRUDEN

CROMPTON
CRUELTY

CROMWELL, HENRY
CRUIKSHANK, GEORGE

CROMWELL, OLIVER
CRUNDEN, JOHN

CROMWELL, RICHARD
CRUSADES

CROMWELL, THOMAS
CRUSENSTOLPE, MAGNUS JAKOB

CRONJE, PIET ARNOLDUS
CRUSIUS, CHRISTIAN AUGUST

CROOKES, SIR WILLIAM
CRUSTACEA

CROOKSTON
CRUSTUMERIUM

CROP
CRUVEILHIER, JEAN

CROPSEY, JASPER FRANCIS
CRUZ E SILVA, ANTONIO DINIZ DA

CROQUET
CRYOLITE

CRORE
CRYPT

CROSBY, HOWARD
CRYPTEIA

CROSS, and CRUCIFIXION
CRYPTOBRANCHUS

CROSSBILL
CRYPTOGRAPHY

CROSSEN
CRYPTOMERIA

CROSSING
CRYPTO-PORTICUS

CROSSKEY, HENRY WILLIAM
CRYSTAL-GAZING

CROSS RIVER
CRYSTALLITE

CROSS-ROADS, BURIAL AT
CRYSTALLIZATION

CROSS SPRINGER
CRYSTALLOGRAPHY

CROTCH, WILLIAM
CRYSTAL PALACE, THE

CROTCHET
CSENGERY, ANTON

CROTONA
CSIKY, GREGOR

CROTONIC ACID
CSOKONAI, MIHALY VITEZ

CROTON OIL
CSOMA DE KÖRÖS, ALEXANDER

CROUP
CTENOPHORA

CROUSAZ, JEAN PIERRE DE
CTESIAS

CROW
CTESIPHON

CROWBERRY
CUBA

CROWD

CROCOITE, a mineral consisting of lead chromate, PbCrO , and crystallizing in the monoclinic system. It is

sometimes used as a paint, being identical in composition with the artificial product chrome-yellow; it is the only
chromate of any importance found in nature. It was discovered at Berezovsk near Ekaterinburg in the Urals in 1766;
and named crocoise by F. S. Beudant in 1832, from the Greek κρόκος, saffron, in allusion to its colour, a name first
altered to crocoisite and afterwards to crocoite. It is found as well-developed crystals of a bright hyacinth-red colour,
which are translucent and have an adamantine to vitreous lustre. On exposure to light much of the translucency and
brilliancy is lost. The streak is orange-yellow; hardness 2½-3; specific gravity 6.0. In the Urals the crystals are found in
quartz-veins traversing granite or gneiss: other localities which have yielded good crystallized specimens are Congonhas
do Campo near Ouro Preto in Brazil, Luzon in the Philippines, and Umtali in Mashonaland. Gold is often found
associated with this mineral. Crystals far surpassing in beauty any previously known have been found in the Adelaide
Mine at Dundas, Tasmania; they are long slender prisms, 3 or 4 in. in length, with a brilliant lustre and colour.

Associated with crocoite at Berezovsk are the closely allied minerals phoenicochroite and vauquelinite. The former is

a basic lead Chromate, Pb Cr O , and the latter a lead and copper phosphate-chromate, 2(Pb, Cu)CrO. (Pb,
Cu) (PO ) . Vauquelinite forms brown or green monoclinic crystals, and was named after L. N. Vauquelin, who in
1797 discovered (simultaneously with and independently of M. H. Klaproth) the element chromium in crocoite.

(L. J. S.)

CROCUS, a botanical genus of the natural order Iridaceae, containing about 70 species, natives of Europe, North

Africa, and temperate Asia, and especially developed in the dry country of south-eastern Europe and western and
central Asia. The plants are admirably adapted for climates in which a season favourable to growth alternates with a hot
or dry season; during the latter they remain dormant beneath the ground in the form of a short thickened stem protected
by the scaly remains of the bases of last season’s leaves (known botanically as a “corm”). At the beginning of the new
season of growth, new flower- and leaf-bearing shoots are developed from the corm at the expense of the food-stuff
stored within it. New corms are produced at the end of the season, and by these the plant is multiplied.

These crocuses of the flower garden are mostly horticultural varieties of C. vernus, C. versicolor and C. aureus

(Dutch crocus), the two former yielding the white, purple and striped, and the latter the yellow varieties. The crocus
succeeds in any fairly good garden soil, and is usually planted near the edges of beds or borders in the flower garden, or
in broadish patches at intervals along the mixed borders. The corms should be planted 3 in. below the surface, and as
they become crowded they should be taken up and replanted with a refreshment of the soil, at least every five or six
years. Crocuses have also a pleasing effect when dotted about on the lawns and grassy banks of the pleasure ground.

Some of the best of the varieties are:—Purple: David Rizzio, Sir J. Franklin, purpureus grandiflorus. Striped: Albion,

La Majestueuse, Sir Walter Scott, Cloth of Silver, Mme Mina. White: Caroline Chisholm, Mont Blanc. Yellow: Large
Dutch.

The species of crocus are not very readily obtainable, but those who make a specialty of hardy bulbs ought certainly

to search them out and grow them. They require the same culture as the more familiar garden varieties; but, as some of
them are apt to suffer from excess of moisture, it is advisable to plant them in prepared soil in a raised pit, where they
are brought nearer to the eye, and where they can be sheltered when necessary by glazed sashes, which, however,
should not be closed except when the plants are at rest, or during inclement weather in order to protect the blossoms,
especially in the case of winter flowering species. The autumn blooming kinds include many plants of very great beauty.
The following species are recommended:—

Spring flowering:—Yellow: C. aureus, aureus var. sulphureus, chrysanthus, Olivieri, Korolkowi, Balansae,

ancyrensis, Susianus, stellaris. Lilac: C. Imperati, Sieberi, etruscus, vernus, Tomasinianus, banaticus. White: C.
biflorus and vars., candidus, vernus vars. Striped: C. versicolor, reticulatus.

Autumn flowering:—Yellow: C. Scharojani. Lilac: C. asluricus, cancellatus
var., cilicicus, byzantinus

(iridiflorus) , longiflorus, medius, nudiflorus, pulchellus, Salzmanni, sativus vars. speciosus, zonatus. White:
caspius, cancellatus, hadrialicus, marathonisius.

479
4

3
2 9
4

3
4 2

Winter flowering:—C. hyemaeis, laevigatus, vitellinus.

CROESUS, last king of Lydia, of the Mermnad dynasty, (560-546 b.c.), succeeded his father Alyattes after a war

with his half-brother. He completed the conquest of Ionia by capturing Ephesus, Miletus and other places, and extended
the Lydian empire as far as the Halys. His wealth, due to trade, was proverbial, and he used part of it in securing
alliances with the Greek states whose fleets might supplement his own army. Various legends were told about him by the
Greeks, one of the most famous being that of Solon’s visit to him with the lesson it conveyed of the divine nemesis which
waits upon overmuch prosperity (Hdt. i. 29 seq.; but see Solon). After the overthrow of the Median empire (549 b.c.)
Croesus found himself confronted by the rising power of Cyrus, and along with Nabonidos of Babylon took measures to
resist it. A coalition was formed between the Lydian and Babylonian kings, Egypt promised troops and Sparta its fleet.
But the coalition was defeated by the rapid movements of Cyrus and the treachery of Eurybatus of Ephesus, who fled to
Persia with the gold that had been entrusted to him, and betrayed the plans of the confederates. Fortified with the
Delphic oracles Croesus marched to the frontier of his empire, but after some initial successes fortune turned against him
and he was forced to retreat to Sardis. Here he was followed by Cyrus who took the city by storm. We may gather
from the recently discovered poem of Bacchylides (iii. 23-62) that he hoped to escape his conqueror by burning himself
with his wealth on a funeral pyre, like Saracus, the last king of Assyria, but that he fell into the hands of Cyrus before he
could effect his purpose. A different version of the story is given (from Lydian sources) by Herodotus (followed by
Xenophon), who makes Cyrus condemn his prisoner to be burnt alive, a mode of death hardly consistent with the
Persian reverence for fire. Apollo, however, came to the rescue of his pious worshipper, and the name of Solon uttered
by Croesus resulted in his deliverance. According to Ctesias, who uses Persian sources, and says nothing of the attempt
to burn Croesus, he subsequently became attached to the court of Cyrus and received the governorship of Barene in
Media. Fragments of columns from the temple of Attemis now in the British Museum have upon them a dedication by
Croesus in Greek.

See R. Schubert, De Croeso et Solone fabula (1868); M. G. Radet, La Lydie et le monde grec au temps des

Mermnades (1892-1893); A. S. Murray, Journ. Hell. Studies, x. pp. 1-10 (1889); for the supposition that Croesus
did actually perish on his own pyre see G. B. Grundy, Great Persian War, p. 28; Grote, Hist. of Greece (ed.
1907), p. 104. Cf. Cyrus; Lydia.

This is probably a Greek legend (cf. the Attic vase of about 500 b.c. in Journ. of Hell. Stud., 1898, p. 268).

CROFT, SIR HERBERT, Bart. (1751-1816), English author, was born at Dunster Park, Berkshire, on the 1st of

November 1751, son of Herbert Croft (see below) of Stifford, Essex. He matriculated at University College, Oxford, in
March 1771, and was subsequently entered at Lincoln’s Inn. He was called to the bar, but in 1782 returned to Oxford
with a view to preparing for holy orders. In 1786 he received the vicarage of Prittlewell, Essex, but he remained at
Oxford for some years accumulating materials for a proposed English dictionary. He was twice married, and on the day
after his second wedding day he was imprisoned at Exeter for debt. He then retired to Hamburg, and two years later his
library was sold. He had succeeded in 1797 to the title, but not to the estates, of a distant cousin, Sir John Croft, the
fourth baronet. He returned to England in 1800, but went abroad once more in 1802. He lived near Amiens at a house
owned by Lady Mary Hamilton, said to have been a daughter of the earl of Leven and Melville. Later he removed to
Paris, where he died on the 26th of April 1816. In some of his numerous literary enterprises he had the help of Charles
Nodier. Croft wrote the Life of Edward Young inserted in Johnson’s Lives of the Poets. In 1780 he published Love
and Madness, a Story too true, in a series of letters between Parties whose names could perhaps be mentioned
were they less known or less lamented. This book, which passed through seven editions, narrates the passion of a
clergyman named James Hackman for Martha Ray, mistress of the earl of Sandwich, who was shot by her lover as she
was leaving Covent Garden in 1779 (see the Case and Memoirs of the late Rev. Mr James Hackman, 1779). Love and
Madness has permanent interest because Croft inserted, among other miscellaneous matter, information about Thomas
Chatterton gained from letters which he obtained from the poet’s sister, Mrs Newton, under false pretences, and used
without payment. Robert Southey, when about to publish an edition of Chatterton’s works for the benefit of his family,
published (November 1799) details of Croft’s proceedings in the Monthly Review. To this attack Croft wrote a reply
addressed to John Nichols in the Gentleman’s Magazine, and afterwards printed separately as Chatterton and Love
and Madness ... (1800). This tract evades the main accusation, and contains much abuse of Southey. Croft, however,
supplied the material for the exhaustive account of Chatterton in A. Kippis’s Biographia Britannica (vol. iv., 1789). In

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1788 he addressed a letter to William Pitt on the subject of a new dictionary. He criticized Samuel Johnson’s efforts,
and in 1790 he claimed to have collected 11,000 words used by excellent authorities but omitted by Johnson. Two
years later he issued proposals for a revised edition of Johnson’s Dictionary, but subscribers were lacking and his 200
vols. of MS. remained unused. Croft was a good scholar and linguist, and the author of some curious books in French.

The Love Letters of Mr H. and Miss R. 1775-1779 were edited from Croft’s book by Mr Gilbert Burgess

(1895). See also John Nichols’s Illustrations ... (1828), v. 202-218.

CROFT, SIR JAMES (d. 1590), lord deputy of Ireland, belonged to an old family of Herefordshire, which county

he represented in parliament in 1541. He was made governor of Haddington in 1549, and became lord deputy of
Ireland in 1551. There he effected little beyond gaining for himself the reputation of a conciliatory disposition. Croft was
all his life a double-dealer. He was imprisoned in the Tower for treason in the reign of Mary, but was released and
treated with consideration by Elizabeth after her accession. He was made governor of Berwick, where he was visited by
John Knox in 1559, and where he busied himself actively on behalf of the Scottish Protestants, though in 1560 he was
suspected, probably with good reason, of treasonable correspondence with Mary of Guise, the Catholic regent of
Scotland; and for ten years he was out of public employment. But in 1570 Elizabeth, who showed the greatest
forbearance and favour to Sir James Croft, made him a privy councillor and controller of her household. He was one of
the commissioners for the trial of Mary queen of Scots, and in 1588 was sent on a diplomatic mission to arrange peace
with the duke of Parma. Croft established private relations with Parma, for which on his return he was sent to the
Tower. He was released before the end of 1589, and died on the 4th of September 1590.

Croft’s eldest son, Edward, was put on his trial in 1589 on the curious charge of having contrived the death of the

earl of Leicester by witchcraft, in revenge for the earl’s supposed hostility to Sir James Croft. Edward Croft was father
of Sir Herbert Croft (d. 1622), who became a Roman Catholic and wrote several controversial pieces in defence of that
faith. His son Herbert Croft (1603-1691), bishop of Hereford, after being for some time, like his father, a member of
the Roman church, returned to the church of England about 1630, and about ten years later was chaplain to Charles I.,
and obtained within a few years a prebend’s stall at Worcester, a canonry of Windsor, and the deanery of Hereford, all
of which preferments he lost during the Civil War and Commonwealth. By Charles II. he was made bishop of Hereford
in 1661. Bishop Croft was the author of many books and pamphlets, several of them against the Roman Catholics; and
one of his works, entitled The Naked Truth, or the True State of the Primitive Church (London, 1675), was very
celebrated in its day, and gave rise to prolonged controversy. The bishop died in 1691. His son Herbert was created a
baronet in 1671, and was the ancestor of Sir Herbert Croft (q.v.), the 18th century writer.

Bibliography.—See Richard Bagwell, Ireland under the Tudors, vol. i. (3 vols., London, 1885); David Lloyd,

State Worthies from the Reformation to the Revolution (2 vols., London, 1766); John Strype, Annals of the
Reformation (Oxford, 1824), which contains an account of the trial of Edward Croft; S. L. Lee’s art. “Croft, Sir
James,” in Dict. of National Biography, vol. xiii.; and for Bishop Croft see Anthony à Wood, Athenae
Oxonienses (ed. Bliss, 1813-1820); John Le Neve, Fasti Ecclesiae Anglicanae (ed. by T. D. Hardy, Oxford,
1854).

CROFT (or Crofts), WILLIAM (1678-1727), English composer, was born in 1678, at Nether Ettington in

Warwickshire. He received his musical education in the Chapel Royal under Dr Blow. He early obtained the place of
organist of St Anne’s, Soho, and in 1700 was admitted a gentleman extraordinary of the Chapel Royal. In 1707 he was
appointed joint-organist with Blow; and upon the death of the latter in 1708 he became solo organist, and also master of
the children and composer of the Chapel Royal, besides being made organist of Westminster Abbey. In 1712 he wrote
a brief introduction on the history of English church music to a collection of the words of anthems which he had edited
under the title of Divine Harmony. In 1713 he obtained his degree of doctor of music in the university of Oxford. In
1724 he published an edition of his choral music in 2 vols. folio, under the name of Musica Sacra, or Select Anthems
in score, for two, three, four, five, six, seven and eight voices, to which is added the Burial Service, as it is
occasionally performed in Westminster Abbey. This handsome work included a portrait of the composer and was the
first of the kind executed on pewter plates and in score. John Page, in his Harmonia Sacra, published in 1800 in 3 vols.
folio, gives seven of Croft’s anthems. Of instrumental music, Croft published six sets of airs for two violins and a bass,
six sonatas for two flutes, six solos for a flute and bass. He died at Bath on the 14th of August 1727, and was buried in
the north aisle of Westminster Abbey, where a monument was erected to his memory by his friend and admirer

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Humphrey Wyrley Birch. Burney in his History of Music devotes several pages of his third volume (pp. 603-612) to Dr
Croft’s life, and criticisms of some of his anthems. During the earlier period of his life Croft wrote much for the theatre,
including overtures and incidental music for Courtship à la mode (1700), The Funeral (1702) and The Lying Lover
(1703).

CROFTER, a term used, more particularly in the Highlands and islands of Scotland, to designate a tenant who rents

and cultivates a small holding of land or “croft.” This Old English word, meaning originally an enclosed field, seems to
correspond to the Dutch kroft, a field on high ground or downs. The ultimate origin is unknown. By the Crofters’
Holdings (Scotland) Act 1886, a crofter is defined as the tenant of a holding who resides on his holding, the annual rent
of which does not exceed £30 in money, and which is situated in a crofting parish. The wholesale clearances of tenants
from their crofts during the 19th century, in violation of, as the tenants claimed, an implied security of tenure, has led in
the past to much agitation on the part of the crofters to secure consideration of their grievances. They have been the
subject of royal commissions and of considerable legislation, but the effect of the Crofters Act of 1886, with subsequent
amending acts, has been to improve their condition markedly, and much of the agitation has now died out. A history of
the legislation dealing with the crofters is given in the article Scotland.

CROKER, JOHN WILSON
(1780-1857), British statesman and author, was born at Galway on the 20th of

December 1780, being the only son of John Croker, the surveyor-general of customs and excise in Ireland. He was
educated at Trinity College, Dublin, where he graduated in 1800. Immediately afterwards he was entered at Lincoln’s
Inn, and in 1802 he was called to the Irish bar. His interest in the French Revolution led him to collect a large number of
valuable documents on the subject, which are now in the British Museum. In 1804 he published anonymously Familiar
Epistles to J. F. Jones, Esquire, on the State of the Irish Stage, a series of caustic criticisms in verse on the
management of the Dublin theatres. The book ran through five editions in one year. Equally successful was the
Intercepted Letter from Canton (1805), also anonymous, a satire on Dublin society. In 1807 he published a pamphlet
on The State of Ireland, Past and Present, in which he advocated Catholic emancipation.

In the following year he entered parliament as member for Downpatrick, obtaining the seat on petition, though he had

been unsuccessful at the poll. The acumen displayed in his Irish pamphlet led Spencer Perceval to recommend him in
1808 to Sir Arthur Wellesley, who had just been appointed to the command of the British forces in the Peninsula, as his
deputy in the office of chief secretary for Ireland. This connexion led to a friendship which remained unbroken till
Wellington’s death. The notorious case of the duke of York in connexion with his abuse of military patronage furnished
him with an opportunity for distinguishing himself. The speech which he delivered on the 14th of March 1809, in answer
to the charges of Colonel Wardle, was regarded as the most able and ingenious defence of the duke that was made in
the debate; and Croker was appointed to the office of secretary to the Admiralty, which he held without interruption
under various administrations for more than twenty years. He proved an excellent public servant, and made many
improvements which have been of permanent value in the organization of his office. Among the first acts of his official
career was the exposure of a fellow-official who had misappropriated the public funds to the extent of £200,000.

In 1827 he became the representative of the university of Dublin, having previously sat successively for the boroughs

of Athlone, Yarmouth (Isle of Wight), Bodmin and Aldeburgh. He was a determined opponent of the Reform Bill, and
vowed that he would never sit in a reformed parliament; his parliamentary career accordingly terminated in 1832. Two
years earlier he had retired from his post at the admiralty on a pension of £1500 a year. Many of his political speeches
were published in pamphlet form, and they show him to have been a vigorous and effective, though somewhat
unscrupulous and often virulently personal, party debater. Croker had been an ardent supporter of Peel, but finally
broke with him when he began to advocate the repeal of the Corn Laws. He is said to have been the first to use (Jan.
1830) the term “conservatives.” He was for many years one of the leading contributors on literary and historical subjects
to the Quarterly Review, with which he had been associated from its foundation. The rancorous spirit in which many of
his articles were written did much to embitter party feeling. It also reacted unfavourably on Croker’s reputation as a
worker in the department of pure literature by bringing political animosities into literary criticism. He had no sympathy
with the younger school of poets who were in revolt against the artificial methods of the 18th century, and he was
responsible for the famous Quarterly article on Keats. It is, nevertheless, unjust to judge Croker by the criticisms which
Macaulay brought against his magnum opus, his edition of Boswell’s Life of Johnson (1831). With all its defects the
work had merits which Macaulay was of course not concerned to point out, and Croker’s researches have been of the

greatest value to subsequent editors. There is little doubt that Macaulay had personal reasons for his attack on Croker,
who had more than once exposed in the House the fallacies that lay hidden under the orator’s brilliant rhetoric. Croker
made no immediate reply to Macaulay’s attack, but when the first two volumes of the History appeared he took the
opportunity of pointing out the inaccuracies that abounded in the work. Croker was occupied for several years on an
annotated edition of Pope’s works. It was left unfinished at the time of his death, but it was afterwards completed by the
Rev. Whitwell Elwin and Mr W. J. Courthope. He died at St Albans Bank, Hampton, on the 10th of August 1857.

Croker was generally supposed to be the original from which Disraeli drew the character of “Rigby” in Coningsby,

because he had for many years had the sole management of the estates of the marquess of Hertford, the “Lord
Monmouth” of the story; but the comparison is a great injustice to the sterling worth of Croker’s character.

The chief works of Croker not already mentioned were his Stories for Children from the History of England

(1817), which provided the model for Scott’s Tales of a Grandfather; Letters on the Naval War with America; A
Reply to the Letters of Malachi Malagrowther (1826); Military Events of the French Revolution of 1830
(1831); a translation of Bassompierre’s Embassy to England (1819); and several lyrical pieces of some merit, such
as the Songs of Trafalgar (1806) and The Battles of Talavera (1809). He also edited the Suffolk Papers (1823),
Hervey’s Memoirs of the Court of George II. (1817), the Letters of Mary Lepel, Lady Hervey (1821-1822), and
Walpole’s Letters to Lord Hertford (1824). His memoirs, diaries and correspondence were edited by Louis J.
Jennings in 1884 under the title of The Croker Papers (3 vols.).

CROKER, RICHARD (1843- ), American politician, was born at Blackrock, Ireland, on the 24th of

November 1843. He was taken to the United States by his parents when two years old, and was educated in the public
schools of New York City, where he eventually became a member of Tammany Hall and active in its politics. He was
an alderman from 1868 to 1870, a coroner from 1873 to 1876, a fire commissioner in 1883 and 1887, and city
chamberlain from 1889 to 1890. After the fall of John Kelly he became the leader of Tammany Hall (q.v.), and for
some time almost completely controlled the organization. His greatest political success was his bringing about the
election of Robert A. van Wyck as first mayor of greater New York in 1897, and during van Wyck’s administration
Croker is popularly supposed to have dominated completely the government of the city. After Croker’s failure to
“carry” the city in the presidential election of 1900 and the defeat of his mayoralty candidate, Edward M. Shepard, in
1901, he resigned from his position of leadership in Tammany, and retired to a country life in England and Ireland. In
1907 he won the Derby with his race-horse Orby.

CROKER, THOMAS CROFTON
(1798-1854), Irish antiquary and humorist, was born in Cork on the 15th of

January 1798. He was apprenticed to a merchant, but in 1819, through the interest of John Wilson Croker, who was,
however, no relation of his, he became a clerk in the Admiralty. Moore was indebted to him in the production of his
Irish Melodies for “many curious fragments of ancient poetry.” In 1825 he produced his most popular book, the Fairy
Legends and Traditions of the South of Ireland, which he followed up by the publication of his Legends of the
Lakes (1829), his Adventures of Barney Mahoney (1852), and an edition of the Popular Songs of Ireland (1839). In
1827 he was made a member of the Irish Academy; in 1839 and 1840 he helped to found the Camden and Percy
Societies, and in 1843 the British Archaeological Association. He wrote Narratives Illustrative of the Contests in
Ireland in 1641 and 1688 (1841), for the Camden Society, Historical Songs of Ireland, &c. (1841), for the Percy
Society, and several other works. He was also a member of the Hakluyt and the Antiquarian Society. He died in
London on the 8th of August 1854.

CROLL, JAMES (1821-1890), Scottish man of science, was born of a peasant family at Little Whitefield, in the

parish of Cargill, in Perthshire, on the 2nd of January 1821. He was regarded as an unpromising boy, but a trifling
circumstance aroused a passion for reading, and he made great progress in self-education. He was apprenticed to a
wheelwright at Collace in Perthshire, but being debarred by ill-health from manual labour, he became successively a
shop-keeper and an insurance agent. In 1859 he was made keeper of the Andersonian Museum in Glasgow, a humble

482

appointment, which, however, gave him congenial occupation. In 1857, being deeply impressed by the metaphysics of
Jonathan Edwards, he had published an anonymous volume entitled The Philosophy of Theism; but his connexion with
the Museum induced him to take up physical science, and from 1861 onwards he studied with such perseverance that
he was enabled to contribute papers to the Philosophical Magazine and other journals. For that magazine in 1864 he
wrote his celebrated essay “On the Physical Cause of the Changes of Climate during Geological Epochs.” This led to his
receiving an appointment on the Scottish Geological Survey in 1867, and for thirteen years he took charge of the
Edinburgh Office. In 1875 he summed up his researches upon the ancient condition of the earth in his Climate and
Time, in their Geological Relations, in which he contends that terrestrial revolutions are due in a measure to cosmical
causes. This theory excited warm controversy. Croll’s replies to his opponents are collected in his Climate and
Cosmology (1885). He had been compelled by ill-health to withdraw from the public service in 1880; yet, working
under the greatest difficulties, and harassed by the inadequacy of his retiring pension, he managed to produce Stellar
Evolution, discussing, among other things, the age of the sun, in 1889; and The Philosophical Basis of Evolution,
partly a critique of Herbert Spencer’s philosophy, in 1890. He died on the 15th of December 1890. The soundness of
Croll’s astronomical theory regarding the glacial period has since been criticized by E. P. Culverwell in the Geological
Magazine for 1895, and by others; and it is now generally abandoned. Nevertheless it must be admitted that his
character as a scientific worker under great discouragements was nothing less than heroic. The hon. degree of LL.D.
was conferred on him in 1876 by the university of St Andrews; and he was elected F.R.S. in the same year.

A n Autobiographical Sketch of James Croll, with Memoir of his Life and Work, was prepared by J. C.

Irons, and published in 1896.

CROLY, GEORGE (1780-1860), British divine and author, son of a Dublin physician, was born on the 17th of

August 1780. He was educated at Trinity College, Dublin, and after ordination was appointed to a small curacy in the
north of Ireland. About 1810 he came to London, and occupied himself with literary work. A man of restless energy, he
claims attention by his extraordinary versatility. He wrote dramatic criticisms for a short-lived periodical called the New
Times; he was one of the earliest contributors to Blackwood’s Magazine; and to the Literary Gazette he contributed
poems, reviews and essays on all kinds of subjects. In 1819 he married Margaret Helen Begbie. Efforts to secure an
English living for Croly were frustrated, according to the Gentleman’s Magazine (Jan. 1861), because Lord Eldon
confounded him with a Roman Catholic of the same name. Excluding his contributions to the daily and weekly press his
chief works were:—Paris in 1815 (1817), a poem in imitation of Childe Harold; Catiline (1822), a tragedy lacking in
dramatic force; Salathiel: A Story of the Past, the Present and the Future (1829), a successful romance of the
“Wandering Jew” type; The Life and Times of his late Majesty George the Fourth (1830); Marston; or, The
Soldier and Statesman (1846), a novel of modern life; The Modern Orlando (1846), a satire which owes something
to Don Juan; and some biographies, sermons and theological works.

Croly was an effective preacher, and continued to hope for preferment from the Tory leaders, to whom he had

rendered considerable services by his pen; but he eventually received, in 1835, the living of St Stephen’s, Walbrook,
London, from a Whig patron, Lord Brougham, with whose family he was connected. In 1847 he was made afternoon
lecturer at the Foundling hospital, but this appointment proved unfortunate. He died suddenly on the 24th of November
1860, in London.

His Poetical Works (2 vols.) were collected in 1830. For a list of his works see Allibone’s Critical Dictionary

of English Literature (1859).

CROMAGNON RACE, the name given by Paul Broca to a type of mankind supposed to be represented by

remains found by Lartet, Christy and others, in France in the Cromagnon cave at Les Eyzies, Tayac district, Dordogne.
At the foot of a steep rock near the village this small cave, nearly filled with debris, was found by workmen in 1868.
Towards the top of the loose strata three human skeletons were unearthed. They were those of an old man, a young
man and a woman, the latter’s skull bearing the mark of a severe wound. The skulls presented such special
characteristics that Broca took them as types of a race. Palaeolithic man is exclusively long-headed, and the
dolichocephalic appearance of the crania (they had a mean cephalic index of 73.34) supported the view that the “find”
at Les Eyzies was palaeolithic. It is, however, inaccurate to state that brachycephaly appears at once with the neolithic
age, dolichocephaly even of a pronounced type persisting far into neolithic times. The Cromagnon race may thus be, as
many anthropologists believe it, early neolithic, a type of man who spread over and inhabited a large portion of Europe

at the close of the Pleistocene period. Some have sought to find in it the substratum of the present populations of
western Europe. Quatrefages identifies Cromagnon man with the tall, long-headed, fair Kabyles (Berbers) who still
survive in various parts of Mauritania. He suggests the introduction of the Cromagnon from Siberia, “arriving in Europe
simultaneously with the great mammals (which were driven by the cold from Siberia), and no doubt following their
route.”

See A. H. Keane’s Ethnology (1896); Mortillet, Le Préhistorique (1900); Sergi, The Mediterranean Race

(1901); Lord Avebury, Prehistoric Times, p. 317 of 1900 edition.

CROMARTY, GEORGE MACKENZIE, 1st Earl of (1630-1714), Scottish statesman, was the eldest son of Sir

John Mackenzie, Bart., of Tarbat (d. 1654), and belonged to the same family as the earls of Seaforth. In 1654 he joined
the rising in Scotland on behalf of Charles II. and after an exile of six years he returned to his own country and took
some part in public affairs after the Restoration. In 1661 he became a lord of session as Lord Tarbat, but having been
concerned in a vain attempt to overthrow Charles II.’s secretary, the earl of Lauderdale, he was dismissed from office in
1664. A period of retirement followed until 1678 when Mackenzie was appointed lord justice general of Scotland; in
1681 he became lord clerk register and a lord of session for the second time, and from 1682 to 1688 he was the chief
minister of Charles II. and James II. in Scotland, being created viscount of Tarbat in 1685. In 1688, however, he
deserted James and soon afterwards made his peace with William III., his experience being very serviceable to the new
government in settling the affairs of Scotland. From 1692 to 1695 Tarbat was again lord clerk register, and having
served for a short time as a secretary of state under Queen Anne he was created earl of Cromarty in 1703. He was
again lord justice general from 1704 to 1710. He warmly supported the union between England and Scotland, writing
some pamphlets in favour of this step, and he died on the 17th of August 1714. Cromarty was a man of much learning,
and among his numerous writings may be mentioned his Account of the conspiracies by the earls of Gowry and R.
Logan (Edinburgh, 1713).

The earl’s grandson George, 3rd earl of Cromarty (c. 1703-1766), succeeded his father John, the 2nd earl, in

February 1731. In 1745 he joined Charles Edward, the young pretender, and he served with the Jacobites until April
1746 when he was taken prisoner in Sutherlandshire. He was tried and sentenced to death, but he obtained a
conditional pardon although his peerage was forfeited. He died on the 28th of September 1766.

This earl’s eldest son was John Mackenzie, Lord Macleod (1727-1789), who shared his father’s fortunes in 1745

and his fate in 1746. Having pleaded guilty at his trial Macleod was pardoned on condition that he gave up all his rights
in the estates of the earldom, and he left England and entered the Swedish army. In this service he rose to high rank and
was made Count Cromarty. The count returned to England in 1777 and was successful in raising, mainly among the
Mackenzies, two splendid battalions of Highlanders, the first of which, now the Highland Light Infantry, served under
him in India. In 1784 he regained the family estates and he died on the 2nd of April 1789. Macleod wrote an account of
the Jacobite rising of 1745, and also one of a campaign in Bohemia in which he took part in 1757; both are printed in
Sir W. Fraser’s Earls of Cromartie (Edinburgh, 1876).

Macleod left no children, and his heir was his cousin, Kenneth Mackenzie (d. 1796), a grandson of the 2nd earl, who

also died childless. The estates then passed to Macleod’s sister, Isabel (1725-1801), wife of George Murray, 6th Lord
Elibank. In 1861 Isabel’s descendant, Anne (1829-1888), wife of George, 3rd duke of Sutherland, was created
countess of Cromartie with remainder to her second son Francis (1852-1893), who became earl of Cromartie in 1888.
In 1895, two years after the death of Francis, his daughter Sibell Lilian (b. 1878) was granted by letters patent the title
of countess of Cromartie.

CROMARTY, a police burgh and seaport of the county of Ross and Cromarty, Scotland. Pop. (1901) 1242. It is

situated on the southern shore of the mouth of Cromarty Firth, 5 m. E. by S. of Invergordon on the opposite coast, with
which there is daily communication by steamer, and 9 m. N.E. of Fortrose, the most convenient railway station. Before
the union of the shires of Ross and Cromarty, it was the county town of Cromartyshire, and is one of the Wick district
group of parliamentary burghs. Its name is variously derived from the Gaelic crom, crooked, and bath, bay, or ard,
height, meaning either the “crooked bay,” or the “bend between the heights” (the high rocks, or Sutors, which guard the
entrance to the Firth), and gave the title to the earldom of Cromarty. The principal buildings are the town hall and the
Hugh Miller Institute. The harbour, enclosed by two piers, accommodates the herring fleet, but the fisheries, the staple

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industry, have declined. The town, however, is in growing repute as a midsummer resort. The thatched house with
crow-stepped gables in Church Street, in which Hugh Miller the geologist was born, still stands, and a statue has been
erected to his memory. To the east of the burgh is Cromarty House, occupying the site of the old castle of the earls of
Ross. It was the birthplace of Sir Thomas Urquhart, the translator of Rabelais.

Cromarty, formerly a county in the north of Scotland, was incorporated with Ross-shire in 1889 under the

designation of the county of Ross and Cromarty. The nucleus of the county consisted of the lands of Cromarty in the
north of the peninsula of the Black Isle. To this were added from time to time the various estates scattered throughout
Ross-shire—the most considerable of which were the districts around Ullapool and Little Loch Broom on the Atlantic
coast, the area in which Ben Wyvis is situated, and a tract to the north of Loch Fannich—which had been acquired by
the ancestors of Sir George Mackenzie (1630-1714), afterwards Viscount Tarbat (1685) and 1st earl of Cromarty
(1703). Desirous of combining these sporadic properties into one shire, Viscount Tarbat was enabled to procure their
annexation to his sheriffdom of Cromarty in 1685 and 1698, the area of the enlarged county amounting to nearly 370 sq.
m. (See Ross and Cromarty.)

CROMARTY FIRTH, an arm of the North Sea, belonging to the county of Ross and Cromarty, Scotland. From

the Moray Firth it extends inland in a westerly and then south-westerly direction for a distance of 19 m. Excepting at the
Bay of Nigg, on the northern shore, and Cromarty Bay, on the southern, where it is about 5 m. wide (due N. and S.),
and at Alness Bay, where it is 2 m. wide, it has an average width of 1 m. and a depth varying from 5 to 10 fathoms,
forming one of the safest and most commodious anchorages in the north of Scotland. Besides other streams it receives
the Conon, Peffery, Skiack and Alness, and the principal places on its shores are Dingwall near the head, Cromarty
near the mouth, Kiltearn, Invergordon and Kilmuir on the north. The entrance is guarded by two precipitous rocks—the
one on the north 400 ft., that on the south 463 ft. high—called the Sutors from a fancied resemblance to a couple of
shoemakers (Scotice, souter), bending over their lasts. There are ferries at Cromarty, Invergordon and Dingwall.

CROME, JOHN (1769-1821), English landscape painter, founder and chief representative of the “Norwich

School,” often called Old Crome, to distinguish him from his son, was born at Norwich, on the 21st of December 1769.
His father was a weaver, and could give him only the scantiest education. His early years were spent in work of the
humblest kind; and at a fit age he became apprentice to a house-painter. To this step he appears to have been led by an
inborn love of art and the desire to acquaint himself by any means with its materials and processes. During his
apprenticeship he sometimes painted signboards, and devoted what leisure time he had to sketching from nature.
Through the influence of a rich art-loving friend he was enabled to exchange his occupation of house-painter for that of
drawing-master; and in this he was engaged throughout his life. He took great delight in a collection of Dutch pictures to
which he had access, and these he carefully studied. About 1790 he was introduced to Sir William Beechey, whose
house in London he frequently visited, and from whom he gathered additional knowledge and help in his art. In 1805 the
Norwich Society of Artists took definite shape, its origin being traceable a year or two further back. Crome was its
president and the largest contributor to its annual exhibitions. Among his pupils were James Stark, Vincent, Thirtle and
John Bernay (Barney) Crome (1794-1842), his son. J. S. Cotman, too, a greater artist than any of these, was
associated with him. Crome continued to reside at Norwich, and with the exception of his short visits to London had
little or no communication with the great artists of his own time. He first exhibited at the Royal Academy in 1806; but in
this and the following twelve years he exhibited there only fourteen of his works. With very few exceptions Crome’s
subjects are taken from the familiar scenery of his native county. Fidelity to nature was his dominant aim. “The bit of
heath, the boat, and the slow water of the flattish land, trees most of all—the single tree in elaborate study, the group of
trees, and how the growth of one affects that of another, and the characteristics of each,”—these, says Frederick
Wedmore (Studies in English Art), are the things to which he is most constant. He still remains, says the same critic, of
many trees the greatest draughtsman, and is especially the master of the oak. His most important works are
—“Mousehold Heath, near Norwich,” now in the National Gallery; “Clump of Trees, Hautbois Common”; “Oak at
Poringland”; the “Willow”; “Coast Scene near Yarmouth”; “Bruges, on the Ostend River”; “Slate Quarries”; the “Italian
Boulevards”; and the “Fishmarket at Boulogne.” He executed a good many etchings, and the great charm of these is in
the beautiful and faithful representation of trees. Crome enjoyed a very limited reputation during his life, and his pictures
were sold at low prices; but since his death they have been more and more appreciated, and have given him a high place
among English painters of landscape. He died at Norwich on the 22nd of April 1821. His son, J. B. Crome, was his
assistant in teaching, and his best pictures were in the same style, his moonlight effects being much admired.

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A collection of “Old” Crome’s etchings, entitled Norfolk Picturesque Scenery, was published in 1834, and was

re-issued with a memoir by Dawson Turner in 1838, but in this issue the prints were retouched by other hands.

CROMER, EVELYN BARING,
1st Earl (1841- ), British statesman and diplomatist, was born on the 26th

of February 1841, the ninth son of Henry Baring, M.P., by Cecilia Anne, eldest daughter of Admiral Windham of
Felbrigge Hall, Norfolk. Having joined the Royal Artillery in 1858, he was appointed in 1861 A.D.C. to Sir Henry
Storks, high commissioner of the Ionian Islands, and acted as secretary to the same chief during the inquiry into the
Jamaica outbreak in 1865. Gazetted captain in 1870, he went in 1872 as private secretary to his cousin Lord
Northbrook, Viceroy of India, where he remained until 1876, when he became major, received the C.S.I., and was
appointed British commissioner of the Egyptian public debt office. Up to this period Major Baring had given no unusual
signs of promise, and the appointment of a comparatively untried major of artillery as the British representative on a
Financial Board composed of representatives of all the great powers was considered a bold one. Within a very short
time it was recognized that the Englishman, though keeping himself carefully in the background, was unmistakably the
predominant factor on the board. He was mainly responsible for the searching report, issued in 1878, of the commission
of inquiry that had been instituted into the financial methods of the Khedive Ismail; and when that able and unscrupulous
Oriental had to submit to an enforced abdication in 1879, it was Major Baring who became the British controller-
general and practical director of the Dual Control. Had he remained in Egypt, the whole course of Egyptian history might
have been altered, but his services were deemed more necessary in India, and under Lord Ripon he became financial
member of council in June 1880. He remained there till 1883, leaving an unmistakable mark on the Indian financial
system, and then, having been rewarded by the K.C.S.I., he was appointed British agent and consul-general in Egypt
and a minister plenipotentiary in the diplomatic service.

Sir Evelyn Baring was at that time only a man of forty-two, who had gained a reputation for considerable financial

ability, combined with an abruptness of manner and a certain autocracy of demeanour which, it was feared, would
impede his success in a position which required considerable tact and diplomacy. It was a friendly colleague who wrote
—

“The virtues of Patience are known,

But I think that, when put to the touch,

The people of Egypt will own, with a groan,

There’s an Evil in Baring too much.”

When he arrived in Cairo in 1883 he found the administration of the country almost non-existent. Ismail had ruled

with all the vices, but also with all the advantages, of autocracy. Disorder in the finances, brutality towards the people,
had been combined with public tranquillity and the outer semblance of civilization. Order, at least, reigned from the
Sudan to the Mediterranean, and such trivial military disturbances as had occurred had been of Ismail’s own devising
and for his own purposes. Tewfik, who had succeeded him, had neither the inclination nor character to be a despot.
Within three years his government had been all but overthrown, and he was only khedive by the grace of British
bayonets. Government by bayonets was not in accord with the views of the House of Commons, yet Ismail’s
government by the kourbash could not be restored. The British government, under Mr Gladstone, desired to establish in
Egypt a sort of constitutional government; and as there existed no single element of a constitution, they had sent out Lord
Dufferin (the first marquess of Dufferin) to frame one. That gifted nobleman, in the delightful lucidity of his picturesque
report, left nothing to be desired except the material necessary to convert the flowing periods into political entities. In
the absence of that, the constitution was still-born, and Sir Evelyn Baring arrived to find, not indeed a clean slate, but a
worn-out papyrus, disfigured by the efforts of centuries to describe in hieroglyph a method of rule for a docile people.

From that date the history of Sir Evelyn Baring, who became Baron Cromer in 1892, G.C.B. in 1895, viscount in

1897, and earl in 1901, is the history of Egypt, and requires the barest mention of its salient points here. From the outset
he realized that the task he had to perform could only be effected piecemeal and in detail, and his very first measure was
one which, though severely criticized at the time, has been justified by events, and which in any case showed that he
shirked no responsibility, and was capable of adopting heroic methods. He counselled the abandonment, at leas...