Encyclopaedia Judaica vol. 20 (To-Wei)

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ENCYCLOPAEDIA
JUDAICA
ENCYCLOPAEDIA
JUDAICA
S E C O N D E D I T I O N
VOLUME 20
To–Wei
Fred Skolnik, Editor in Chief
Michael Berenbaum, Executive Editor
IN ASSOCIATION WITH
KETER PUBLISHING HOUSE LtD., JERUSALEM
ENCYCLOPAEDIA JUDAICA, Second Edition
Fred Skolnik, Editor in Chief
Michael Berenbaum, Executive Editor
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TABLE OF CONTENTS
Entries To–Wei
5
•
Abbreviations
General Abbreviations
757
Abbreviations used in Rabbinical Literature
758
Bibliographical Abbreviations
764
•
Transliteration Rules
777
Glossary
780
Initial letter “T” of the phrase
Temptavit Deus Abraham in a
14th-century Paris missal. The il-
lumination shows the “sacrifice” of
Isaac. Rheims, Bibliothèque Mu- To-Tz
nicipale, Ms. 2301, fol. 49v.
TOAFF, Italian family of rabbis. ALFREDO SABATO TOAFF its closure by the Fascist regime (reopened 1955). He was rabbi
(1880–1963) was born in Leghorn and studied under R. Elijah of Ancona (1941–46) and of Venice (1946–51) and was called
*Benamozegh at the Leghorn Rabbinical College, where he to Rome to succeed David *Prato as chief rabbi of that com-
was made professor, and in 1923 succeeded Samuel *Colombo munity in 1951. A member of the Italian Rabbinical Council
as chief rabbi of Leghorn. A member of the Italian Rabbini- and head of the Collegio Rabbinico Italiano from 1963, he
cal Council for many years (from 1931), he was several times edited the Annuario di Studi Ebraici at the college. Elio was
its president. He headed the Leghorn Rabbinical College and a member of the executive of the Conference of European
was head of the *Collegio Rabbinico Italiano in Rome from Rabbis. On April 13, 1986, he welcomed Pope John Paul II on
its reopening in 1955 until his death, which occurred in his the first visit ever by a pope to a synagogue. He wrote articles
native city. He was the author of many works on, and trans- and translated studies on Jewish, biblical, and historical top-
lations into Italian of, biblical and post-biblical Hebrew lit- ics from Hebrew into Italian.
erature, as well as of writings on the history and traditions of
Bibliography: Israel, corriere israelitico, 49 (1963), nos.
the Leghorn Jewish community (such as Cenni storici sulla 7–13; Ha-Tikwà, Organo della Federazione giovanile ebraica d’Italia,
Comunità Ebraica e sulla Singagoga di Livorno, 1955). Many 11 (1963), no. 9.
of his writings show the influence of E. Benamozegh, whose [Sergio DellaPergola]
Scritti Scelti (1955) he edited. A bibliography of the writings
of Alfredo Toaff appears in: E. Toaff (ed.), Annuario di Studi TOB (Heb. בוֹט), biblical place name. When *Jephthah the
Ebraici (1965), 215–6. Gileadite was expelled from his father’s house, he went to the
His son, ELIO TOAFF (1915– ), was born in Leghorn and land of Tob (Judg. 11:13). “A man of Tob” (Heb. ish Tov) is men-
was the last rabbi ordained by its Rabbinical College, before tioned alongside the Aramean armies which came to the aid
ENCYCLOPAEDIA JUDAICA, Second Edition, Volume 20 5
tobacco trade and industries
of the Ammonites during their war with David (II Sam. 10:6, market Leopold *Kronenberg, the Jewish industrialist and fi-
8). The phrase “a man of Tob” apparently refers to the peo- nancier, was one of the main entrepreneurs in Poland, own-
ple of the land of Tob (cf. the usages “man of Israel,” “man of ing 12 factories in 1867 and producing 25 of the total. Of
God”), or to a Tobite ruler (cf. the terms for Canaanite rulers 110 tobacco factories in the *Pale of Settlement in 1897, 83
in the *El-Amarna tablets). were owned by Jews, and over 80 of the workers were Jew-
Documents from the second millennium B.C.E. mention ish. This participation continued into the 20t century, and
a place called Ṭby or Ṭubu, along with cities in *Bashan. It has the Jewish tobacco workers were active in the ranks of so-
been suggested, therefore, by B. Mazar, that the land of Tob is cialism. The huge Y. Shereshevsky tobacco factory in Grodno
to be located in the vicinity of the settlement of Taiyibeh, east employed, before World War I, some 1,800 workers. The na-
of Edrei. It seems that the land of Tob was back country, and tionalization in Poland of the tobacco and liquor industries
that it served as an asylum for outlaws. in 1923–24 was a severe blow to the many Jews who gained
Bibliography: B. Maisler (Mazar), in: JPOS, 9 (1929), 83; M. their livelihood from them. The leading tobacco factories in
Noth, in: ZDPV, 68 (1949), 6 (n. 6), 8 (n. 3), 27–28. Riga, Latvia, were owned by two wealthy Karaites, Asimakis
[Bustanay Oded] and Maikapar.
On the American continent Jews traded in tobacco as
TOBACCO TRADE AND INDUSTRIES. Throughout early as 1658. It frequently served as legal tender and was a
the first two centuries after the discovery of tobacco for Eu- stock retail article of the Jewish peddler. However, Jews played
rope through Christopher Columbus, *Marranos took part a considerable part only in the snuff trade, among them the
in spreading its cultivation and in introducing it to Europe. firms of Asher and Solomon, and Gomez. Judah Morris, who
Jews took up smoking (widespread from the 17t century) and wrote the first Hebrew book to be printed in North America,
snuff taking (widespread from the 18t), and entered the trade became a snuff trader. The last quarter of the 19t century
in tobacco, which, starting out as a luxury article, became a brought an influx of impoverished Jewish immigrants from
mass consumer commodity. Eastern Europe who entered the cigar and cigarette industry,
At Amsterdam, the first important tobacco importing and, after the garment industry, it had the largest concentra-
and processing center in the 17t century, Isak ltaliaander was tion of Jewish workers in the United States. The first profes-
the largest importer, and 10 of the 30 leading tobacco import- sional cigar makers were generally Jews of Dutch or German
ers were Jews. Ashkenazi and poor Sephardi Jews were em- origin, who employed the immigrants in their factories or in
ployed in processing tobacco for snuff: the profession of 14 out sweatshops. The Jewish firm of Keeney Brothers, makers of
of 24 bridegrooms in a list of 1649–53 was tobacco dressing. In “Sweet Caporals,” employed approximately 2,000 Jewish work-
this period Jews took an active part in the tobacco trade of the ers. The Durham factory almost exclusively employed Jews.
*Hamburg center. The first Jews to settle in *Mecklenburg in Tobacco workers, organized by Samuel *Gompers, became the
the late 17t century were tobacco traders from Hamburg who spearhead of the labor union movement in the United States
leased the ducal tobacco monopoly; outstanding was Michael in the 1870s and 1880s. Subsequently Jewish participation in
Hinrichsen nicknamed “Tabakspinner.” Sephardi Jews filled an the cigarette industry declined through the creation of large
important role in the “appalto” system of contracting for the concerns, though many cigar firms remained under Jewish
monopoly on the tobacco trade (or other products). The mo- ownership. In New York and the major cities the tobacco retail
nopoly concession system was also practiced in the Austrian trade occupied a high proportion of Jews. A survey by Fortune
provinces and the southern German states. In this, Sephardi magazine (Jews in America; 1935) stated that “Jews have practi-
Jews were often the contractors because of their previous ex- cally blanketed the tobacco buying business, where Jews and
perience. The business carried considerable risks, including buyer are synonymous words, and they control three of the
fluctuating prices, varying quality, deterioration through adul- four leading cigar-manufacturing concerns, including Fred
teration, and the hazards of war. Hirschhorn’s General Cigar, which makes every seventh ci-
Diego d’*Aguilar managed to hold the tobacco monopoly gar smoked in America.” The *Culman family of Philip Mor-
in Austria in 1734–48, using Christian nobles as men of straw. ris, involved in American tobacco from the mid-19t century,
In the second half of the 18t century the tobacco monopoly was a giant of the industry. In Canada Jews played a leading
of Bohemia and Moravia was in the hands of members of the role in introducing the tobacco industry; Mortimer B. Davis
*Dobruschka, *Popper, and *Hoenig families, whereby they was known as the “tobacco king” of Canada.
rose to importance and amassed wealth. Jews succeeded in In Great Britain cigar making was traditionally associated
holding the tobacco monopoly in only a few principalities in with Dutch Jews, who formed the main body of Jewish im-
Germany. In the 19t century Jews entered the open tobacco migrants in the mid-19t century; cigar making was the most
market. In 1933 Jews engaged in about 5 of the German to- widespread occupation in London’s East End in 1860. In 1850,
bacco trade and industry, primarily as cigar manufacturers. 44 of the meerschaum pipe makers were Jewish, and 22
In Eastern Europe snuff processing was widespread, and of the cigar manufacturers. East European Jewish immigrants
tobacco was a staple ware of the Jewish *peddler. When in introduced cigarette making into England. In 1880 Jacob Ka-
the mid-19t century cigars and cigarettes entered the mass musch, an Austrian Jewish cigarette entrepreneur, brought
6 ENCYCLOPAEDIA JUDAICA, Second Edition, Volume 20
toback, james
310 workers, mainly Jewish, to his Glasgow cigarette factory. (1937), 54–56; S. Simonsohn, Toledot ha-Yehudim be-Dukkasut Man-
Isidore Gluckstein founded his first tobacconist shop in 1872 tovah, 2 vols. (1962–64); Z. Kahana, in: Kol Torah, 3 (1949/50), 55–61;
L.P. Gartner, The Jewish Immigrant in England (1960), 73–75; V.D. Lip-
and became the biggest retail tobacconist in England, up to
man, Social History of the Jews in England (1954), index.
1904. Bernhard *Baron was a large-scale cigarette manufac-
turer in America and England.
TOBACH, ETHEL (1921– ), U.S. leader in the field of com-
Sephardi Jews played an active role in the tobacco trade
parative psychology and the use of psychological knowledge
from its beginnings in the Ottoman Empire. The *Recanati
for the public good. Tobach was born in the Ukraine to Fanya
banking family began as *Salonika tobacco merchants. Thrace
(Schecterman) and Ralph Wiener. Two weeks after her birth
and Macedonia were major tobacco-growing areas; the *Ala-
her parents fled with her to Palestine to escape pogroms.
tino (Alatini) family became sole suppliers of the Italian to-
When Tobach’s father died nine months later, her mother im-
bacco monopoly.
migrated with her to Philadelphia and became an activist in
[Henry Wasserman]
the garment workers’ union. Tobach also worked at blue-collar
In Israel occupations while attending Hunter College in New York City,
Tobacco growing was first introduced in the country in from which she graduated Phi Beta Kappa in 1949. Shortly af-
1923/24, in order to solve problems of unemployment. New ter World War II she married Charles Tobach, a fellow radi-
immigrants from Bulgaria and Greece took an important cal who belonged to her union. He encouraged her to pursue
part in the development of the industry. All kinds of tobacco graduate work in psychology at New York University, where
products are manufactured in Israel. In 1969 the overall pro- she received a Ph.D. in 1957.
duction included 3,700 tons of cigarettes, 15,000 kg. of cigars, Tobach spent her entire career at the American Museum
60,600 kg. of tumbak, 40,100 kg. of snuff, and 16,600 kg. of of Natural History, rising to the rank of curator. Although she
pipe tobacco. In the same year the consumption of tobacco taught at a number of universities in the New York City area,
products amounted to nearly IL 200,000,000 (about 2 of the for most of her professional life she was a full time researcher
total private consumption in Israel), including mainly locally in animal behavior. Her research was voluminous and broad
produced products but also about $6,000,000 worth of im- in scope. Her empirical articles focused on the link between
ported products. There were 15 manufacturing plants in Israel, stress and disease in rats; she also contributed extensively to
employing 875 workers and processing mostly locally grown the study of emotionality in rats and mice, and explored the
tobacco of Oriental aroma. Tobacco was grown mainly in the biopsychology of development and the evolution of social be-
non-Jewish sector in northern Israel. In 1950 tobacco-grow- havior. Tobach was a consistent critic of genetic determinism;
ing areas amounted to 9,000 dunams, and tobacco-product one of her most important contributions to psychology was
manufacture reached 600 tons. By 1969 tobacco was grown the book series, “Genes and Gender,” initiated in 1978 with
in 35,000 dunams and production increased to 2,200 tons. Betty Rosoff. These books critically examined psychology’s
Since that time tobacco production has dropped radically, to relatively unsophisticated view of the interactions between
150 tons on 5,000 dunams by 1990, but cigarette imports have biological and social processes.
risen dramatically, by about 2,500 between 1970 and 2000 Tobach was vice president of the New York Academy
along with a 33 increase in tobacco leaf imports. Local cig- of Sciences in 1972, president of the American Psychological
arette production rose from 3,668 million cigarettes in 1970 Association Division of Comparative and Physiological Psy-
to 4,933 million in 1995. The industry employed around 600 chology in 1984–85, president of the Eastern Psychological
workers in the late 1990s. Association in 1987–88, and president of the APA Division on
[Zeev Barkai]
Peace in 2003–4. In 1993 she received the Kurt Lewin award
Bibliography: M. Hainisch, in: Vierteljahrschrift fuer Sozial- from the Society for the Psychological Study of Social Issues
und Wirtschaftsgeschichte, 8 (1910), 394–444; W. Stieda, Die Besteuer-
and in 2003 she received an award for Life Time Service for
ung des Tabaks in Ansbach-Bayreuth und Bamberg-Wuerzburg im
Psychology in the Public Interest from the American Psycho-
achtzehnten Jahrhundert (1911); M. Grunwald, Samuel Oppenheimer
logical Foundation.
(1913), 295–300; A.D. Hart, The Jew in Canada (1926), 324–5, 337; S.B.
Weinryb, Neueste Wirtschaftsgeschichte der Juden in Russland und Po- Bibliography: R.K. Unger, “Tobach, Ethel,” in P.E. Hy-
len (1934), index, S.V. Tabakindustrie; P. Friedmann, in: Jewish Stud- man and D. Dash Moore (eds.), Jewish Women in America, 2 (1997),
ies in Memory of G.A. Kohut (1935), 196, 232–3 (Ger.); H.I. Bloom, 1404–6.
Economic Activities of the Jews of Amsterdam (1937); H. Rachel et al., [Rhoda K. Unger (2nd ed.)]
Berliner Grosskaufleute und Kapitalisten, 2 (1938), 50–52; J. Starr, in:
JSOS, 7 (1945), 323–6; M. Epstein, Jewish Labor in U.S.A. (1950), 76–78; TOBACK, JAMES (1944– ), U.S. writer, screenwriter-direc-
J. Shatzky, Geshikhte fun Yidn in Varshe, 3 (1953), 37, 43–46; H. Sch- tor, and producer. Born in New York City, Toback was edu-
nee, Die Hoffinanz und der moderne Staat, 1 (1953), 89, 185; 2 (1954),
cated at Harvard University (A.B., 1966) and Columbia Uni-
88f., 294ff.; 3 (1955), 123ff.; 4 (1963), 219–22, 239–41; S. Gompers, Sev-
versity (M.A., 1967). He served as an instructor in English at
enty Years of Life and Labour (19572); H. Kellenbenz, Sephardim an
the City College of the City University of New York and wrote
der unteren Elbe (1958), 205, 436–46; J. Frumkin et al., Russian Jewry
(1966), 130–1; V. Kurrein, in: Menorah, 3 (1925), 155f.; A. Mueller, Zur JIM: The Author’s Self-Centered Memoir on the Great Jim Brown
Geschichte der Judenfrage in… der Landgrafschaft Hessen-Darmstadt (1971). He was also the author of a sports column appearing
ENCYCLOPAEDIA JUDAICA, Second Edition, Volume 20 7
tobenkin, elias
in Lifestyle, a film critic for Dissent; and contributed articles fountains (Lapp 1963). It is called the Qasr al-Abd (“Castle
to numerous magazines, including Esquire, Sport, the Village of the Slave”) and was largely restored by a French team in
Voice, Harper’s, and Commentary. Toback wrote the screen- the years 1976 to 1986 (Will and Larché, 1991). It was built
plays for The Gambler (1974) and Bugsy (1991) and was the by Hyrcanus, the last of the Tobiads, and largely completed,
writer and director for Fingers (1978), Love and Money (1982), but much of its megalithic construction was toppled by later
Exposed (1983), The Pick-Up Artist (1987), The Big Bang (1989); earthquakes (Amiran 1996).
Two Girls and a Guy (1997), Black & White (1999), Love in The earliest Tobiad to be described in some detail is To-
Paris (1999), Harvard Man (2001), and When Will I Be Loved byah, “the servant, the Ammonite” (Neh. 2:10). He was one of
(2004). Subsequently he wrote the screenplay for the French the chief opponents of Nehemiah, when he came to rebuild
remake of his film Fingers, translated into English as The Beat the walls of Jerusalem in 445 B.C.E. As Tobyah was allied to
That My Heart Skipped (2005). *Sanballat of Samaria and Geshem the Arabian (2:19), all ma-
[Amy Handelsman (2nd ed.)] jor landowners, it is likely that their opposition was mainly
due to the land reforms being forced through by Nehemiah
TOBENKIN, ELIAS (1882–1963), U.S. journalist and au- (5:11). Tobyah was well connected to other Jewish aristocratic
thor. Born in Russia and taken to the U.S. as a boy, he served families by oath (6:17–18) and to the priesthood by marriage.
as Russian expert for the U.S. Committee on Public Informa- He was given rooms in the offerings chamber of the Temple by
tion. He was correspondent for the Herald Tribune in East- the High Priest Eliashib, but Nehemiah had him expelled and
ern Europe and Germany, and in 1926 spent five months in insisted that the place be ritually cleansed thereafter (13:4–11).
the U.S.S.R. and wrote an uncensored account of the Com- The title given him by Nehemiah, “the servant, the Ammo-
munist regime. His first novel Witte Arrives (1916) described nite,” is generally taken to be a rank implying ministerial ser-
the Americanization of an immigrant Jewish family. God of vice to the Persians in Ammon, and some have claimed that
Might (1925) dealt with the problems of intermarriage. Among he was governor of the Persian province of Ammon. But that
his other books were Stalin’s Ladder (1933) and The Peoples post is not attested to and the title could also be pejorative, as
Want Peace (1938). implying that Tobyah’s pedigree was not faultless, seeing that,
on their return from the Exile, the Benei Tobyah clan had not
TOBIADS, dynastic family of political importance from the been able to prove “they were of Israel” (7:61–62).
time of Nehemiah to the end of the Hasmonean revolt. The The second known prominent member of the family was
name Tobiah remained in the family on the basis of pappyon- Toubias, who was visited by Zenon, acting on behalf of Appo-
omy, handed down from grandson to son, for many genera- lonius, chief minister to Ptolemy II Philadelphos of Egypt. The
tions. There is good literary evidence for at least four promi- papyri records of his journey through Palestine and Transjor-
nent members of the family and archaeological evidence of dan are dated to 259 B.C.E. He visited Surabit (Ẓur bayit), the
their country seat in Transjordan for several hundred years in birta of Ammonitis, where he conducted trade with its chief-
the Hellenistic period. The family may have had earlier ances- tain Toubias. Zenon brought grain from Egypt and several
tors, such as Tobijah, returnee from the Exile, mentioned by contracts record that he received slave boys and girls and ex-
Zechariah (6:9 and 14); Tubyahu, “arm” and “servant” of the otic animals in return. The animals, consisting of horses, dogs,
king, mentioned in the Lachish letters of 588 B.C.E.; and even donkeys, and asses, were sent as gifts to Appolonius and to
the “son of Tabeel,” a usurper planning to replace King Ahaz Ptolemy directly (Tcherikover and Fuks 1957). The contracts
(Isa. 7:6), all as claimed by Mazar (1957). were witnessed by Persian and Greek soldiers and indicate that
The Tobiad estate was at Tyros (Ẓur, or “rock”), some Tyros was then a military camp as well as an animal breeding
13 mi. (20 km). west of Rabbat-Ammon (Philadelphia) and center under Toubias and well known to the Egyptians.
was rediscovered by Willam Bankes in 1818 (Irby and Mangles Josephus wrote extensively on the subject of Joseph, son
1823), thanks to a full account of it by Josephus. He described it of Tobias, and his son Hyrcanus (Ant. 12:154–236) in a sec-
as a paradeisos, a kind of Persian country estate, consisting of tion that is generally known as the Tobiad Saga, or the “Tales
a marble fortress (birta) with animals carved on the walls, and of the Tobiads” (Goldstein 1975). His account had been seen
surrounded by a moat; a long series of defensible caves; some as mainly fictional, as it contains many fabulous deeds of the
enclosed halls and vast parks; and located between Arabia and two Tobiads, but when the evidence of the Zenon Papyri (as
Judea, not far from Heshbon (Ant. 12:222–34). His account is above) came to light in 1918, and when Josephus’s description
accurate, though not in all details. The site is known today as of Tyros was seen to accord with the facts on the ground, it
Airaq (or ‘Iraq) al-Amir (“Cliff of the Prince”), based on the was necessary to take him seriously. He tells us that Joseph’s
cliff of caves, and the name Tyros, or Ẓur, is still preserved in mother was a sister of the High Priest Onias, and that as a
that of the adjacent valley, Wadi Sir. Two of the cave entrances young man he was elected as prostastes (chief magistrate) of
carry a large Aramaic inscription, TOBYAH, to the right-hand the Jews in place of Onias, who had refused to pay tribute to
side of their doorways. The chief building, of monumental size Ptolemy, the Egyptian Pharaoh. Joseph went to Alexandria
though plainly not a fortress, sported at each corner a frieze and obtained the office of tax farmer to Ptolemy for Coele-
of lions (with two eagles above) and had two unique panther Syria (Palestine) and, with the help of Egyptian troops, ex-
8 ENCYCLOPAEDIA JUDAICA, Second Edition, Volume 20