Encyclopaedia Britannica Almanac 2008 PDF
Preview Encyclopaedia Britannica Almanac 2008
Fromtheknowledgeleadersince1768 E N C Y C L O P Æ D I A Britannica A L M A N A C 2008 E N C Y C L O P Æ D I A Britannica® JacobE.Safra,ChairmanoftheBoard JorgeAguilar-Cauz,President Chicago·London·NewDelhi·Paris·Seoul·Sydney·Taipei·Tokyo © 2008 Encyclopædia Britannica, Inc. EDITORIAL ARTANDCOMPOSITION ENCYCLOPÆDIABRITANNICA,INC. ThadKing KathyNakamura SusanaDarwin StevenN.Kapusta JacobE.Safra CharlesP.Trumbull CarolA.Gaines ChairmanoftheBoard PatriciaBauer ChristineMcCabe CharlesCegielski CateNichols JorgeAguilar-Cauz RobertM.Lewis ThomasJ.Spanos President KennethPletcher MichaelRay EDITORIALLIBRARY MichaelRoss BarbaraSchreiber HenryBolzon SeniorVicePresident, MelindaC.Shepherd LarsMahinske CorporateDevelopment KarenJacobsSparks AnitaWolff INFORMATIONMANAGEMENT DaleH.Hoiberg Carmen-MariaHetrea SeniorVicePresident PRODUCTIONCONTROL SheilaVasich andEditor MarilynL.Barton MansurAbdullah RosalineJacksonKeys WORLDDATA MANUFACTURING Manager,Almanacand StephenNeher KimGerber WorldData MaryKasprzak MEDIAASSETMANAGEMENT MichaelLevy CARTOGRAPHY JeannineDeubel ExecutiveEditor,CoreEditorial MichaelNutter MarshaMackenzie COPY ManagingEditorand SylviaWallace DirectorofProduction JohnM.Cunningham GlennJenne SusanSchumer ©2008BYENCYCLOPÆDIABRITANNICA,INC. 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TABLEOFCONTENTS 3 YearinReview CivilEngineering.......................180 LifeonEarth..........................188 Features Animals.............................188 OneDayinIraq.........................5 Plants..............................189 byMichaelDuffy,BrianBennet,and Geology.............................191 MarkKukis,TIME PreservingNature......................199 TheVirtualWorldofOnlineGaming........7 byMichaelRay Health................................200 TheUS2006MidtermElections...........8 DietandExercise.....................207 byDavidC.Beckwith OutsourcingWar:TheSurgeinPrivate MilitaryFirms........................9 World byPeterSaracino China:DawnofaNewDynasty...........217 Chronology,July2006–June2007 byMichaelElliott,TIME MonthbyMonth.......................11 CountriesoftheWorld..................219 Disasters,July2006–June2007 MonthbyMonth.......................30 FLAGS...............................481–486 MAPS...............................487–496 People RulersandRegimes....................564 TheTIME100,2007.....................35 Populations...........................578 CelebritiesandNewsmakers..............37 LanguagesoftheWorld.................580 Obituaries..............................77 Scholarship...........................581 Religion ..............................583 Awards The2007AnnualMegacensusof TIME’sTop100Films....................89 Religions............................584 TIME’sPersonoftheYear,1927–2006.....90 Law&Crime ..........................590 TheNobelPrizes........................91 MilitaryAffairs.........................593 SpecialAchievementAwards.............104 UnitedStates ScienceHonors........................110 AmericanHistory:Jamestownat400......595 byRichardBrookhiserforTIME Nature,Science,Medicine,&Technology History...............................597 Environment:GlobalWarming............117 UnitedStatesChronology..............597 byJeffreyKluger,TIME ImportantDocumentsinUSHistory.....600 Time.................................119 Government...........................612 TheUniverse..........................127 ThePresidency ......................612 TheSupremeCourt...................640 Cosmogony..........................127 TheCongress........................643 Constellations.......................129 TheSenate .......................643 AstronomicalPhenomenafor2008 .....135 TheHouseofRepresentatives........646 MeasurementsandNumbers ............154 MilitaryAffairs.........................654 AppliedScience........................165 Population............................661 Communications.......................166 TheStatesandOtherAreas..............669 AerospaceTechnology ..................167 StateGovernment......................698 SpaceExploration....................167 Cities.................................703 SpaceExplorationFirsts...............171 LawandCrime.........................705 AirTravel..............................172 Society...............................712 Meteorology...........................174 Family..............................712 GeologicDisasters .....................178 Education...........................715 © 2008 Encyclopædia Britannica, Inc. 4 TABLEOFCONTENTS Business Sport WorldEconomy:India,Inc................717 Golf:WomenontheVerge...............799 byMichaelElliottandAlexPerry,TIME byKristinaDell,TIME USEconomy...........................719 Golf:TeeingUpaNewGame.............800 byKristinaDell,TIME Energy..............................721 SportingCodesforCountries.............801 TravelandTourism .....................722 TheOlympicGames ....................803 Employment...........................725 SpecialOlympics.......................865 ConsumerPrices.......................735 AutomobileRacing .....................866 USBudget............................737 Baseball..............................868 USTaxes..............................740 Basketball............................872 BilliardGames.........................877 Arts,Entertainment,&Leisure Bowling...............................878 Theater:Girls,Girls,Girls................743 Chess................................880 byRichardZoglin,TIME Cricket ...............................880 Cinema:BoysWhoLikeToys.............744 Curling...............................881 byRebeccaWintersKeegan,TIME Cycling...............................882 MotionPictures........................745 Football ..............................884 AcademyAwards.....................745 US.................................885 Television.............................762 Canadian...........................891 EmmyAwards .......................762 Australian...........................892 Rugby..............................892 Theater...............................765 AssociationFootball(Soccer)...........893 TonyAwards.........................765 Golf..................................896 EncyclopædiaBritannica’s 25NotableUSTheaterCompanies....768 HorseRacing..........................903 Music................................768 IceHockey............................912 GrammyAwards......................768 Marathon.............................915 EncyclopædiaBritannica’s Rodeo................................918 25World-ClassOrchestras...........774 EncyclopædiaBritannica’s Skiing................................918 Top25OperaCompanies............775 SledDogRacing.......................923 Pageants.............................775 Swimming ............................924 ArtsandLettersAwards.................777 Tennis................................929 PulitzerPrizes .......................777 Track&Field..........................944 Architecture...........................797 Volleyball.............................952 SpecialHonors ........................798 WeightLifting..........................953 INDEX....................................954 © 2008 Encyclopædia Britannica, Inc. One Day in Iraq byMichaelDuffy,BrianBennet,andMarkKukis,TIME A sofIndependenceDay2007,morethan3,500 pleasesendEvans,whohadneverhelpedafamily AmericanshaddiedinIraqsincethewarbegan grievebefore.ScherryisthefirstofEvans’recruitsto in2003.That’stwoperday,aratethathasin- die in Iraq. “You find yourself lying awake at night creasedwiththe“surge”of30,000UStroopsinto looking for some magical words that can help the Baghdadthatbeganearlyin2006.ThenumberofUS family ease their pain, and there are no magical casualties increased since the buildup began, as wordstobehad,”saysEvans.“Youcan’tbringtheir Pres.GeorgeW.Bushpredictedtheywould.Sohas sonbackforthem.” thefrequencyofgrievoussingledayswhenmultiple servicememberswerekilled.Onesuchdaywas16 AMARINEFATHER’SLAMENT April2007:sixAmericansdiedinIraqonthatday. DeLaTorre,Jesse Herearethestoriesoffiveofthem. Age29.Lancecorporal,USMarineCorps.2ndBat- talion, 7th Marine Regiment, 1st Marine Division, THEBROTHERWHODIDN’TCOMEHOME 1stMarineExpeditionaryForce Scherry,Daniel Hostilefire,Anbarprovince Age20.Lancecorporal,USMarineCorps.1stBat- talion,2ndMarineRegiment,2ndMarineDivision, AurelianoDeLaTorredidn’twanthissonJesseto 2ndMarineExpeditionaryForce join the Marines. “It was his own idea,” Aureliano Nonhostileaccident,Anbarprovince says.“Ididn’tagree,buttherewasnothingIcould do.”AsthewarsinIraqandAfghanistanunfolded, Leaving home in Rocky River OH was hard for Jessegrewdeterminedtogetinvolvedashemulled DanielScherry.Hismotherandtwosisterswerein hisfutureandthestateoftheworldfromhishome- tearswhenhisMarineCorpsrecruiter,StaffSgt.Eric townofAuroraIL.Hetoldhisfatherthatsomeone Evans,wenttopickhimupforbasictraininginthe hadtodosomethingtostopal-Qaeda. spring of 2006. Soon Scherry was crying too. “His Jessewasagiftedsaxophoneplayer;untilhejoined sisters were his world,” says Evans. Their names, themilitary,jazzhadbeenoneofhismainpassions. KacieandLauren,weretattooedontheinsideofhis Buthealwaysseemedinsearchofalargerpurpose. arms.ToconsoleScherry,EvanstoldtheyoungMa- Whenhewasabout12,heaskedhisfathertotake rinetherecruiterwouldbethereforthesisterswhile himtoanondenominationalBible-studygroup.Jesse hewasaway. hadfounditonhisownandwantedtogobecause Scherry’smotherMariannehadtriedtotalkhimout hewascuriousaboutreligion.Fortwoyearsfather ofjoiningtheMarines,atleastuntilhefinishedcol- andsonwenttogethertoBiblediscussions,where lege.In2004,whentheMarineswereassaultingFal- Jessewaseasilytheyoungestperson.Jesse’sinitial lujahandsufferingheavycasualties,sheshowedthe curiositygrewintoadeeplyfeltsenseofspirituality newspapertoheronlyson.Look,shesaid,theyare thatstayedwithhimthroughouthislife.Hecarrieda so young-—just 19 and 20-—and they’re dying. But Bibletoschool. ScherryrepliedthattheMarineswhodiedtheremust Aftergraduatingfromhighschoolin1998,Jesse have been proud to do so for their country. “He putjazzasideandpursuedcomputerengineeringin lookedattheMarinesasbeingthebest,andthat’s community-collegeclassesinAurora,wherehealso whathewantedtobe—thebest,”saysMarianne.“He workedataninsurancecompany.Butheabandoned knewitwasthehardestbootcamp.Heknewitwas thecollegepathin2005toenlistintheMarines.The the toughest training. That’s what he wanted. He decisiontookhisfamilybysurprise.Jessetoldhisfa- wantedtopushhimself.” theronlyafterhehadarrivedinCaliforniafortraining. Scherry’s mentor in the Marines was Evans, who Soonafter,JesseleftforIraq,wherewordfromhim feltclosertoScherrythantootherrecruitshehad camerarely. signed up; he reminded Evans of himself as an JessewenthomeoverChristmasin2006fortwo eageryoungrecruit.EvanstalkedwithScherryfora weeksofleave.Aboutfiveweeksafterreturningto longtimethatfirstnight,assuringhimhewasem- duty in Anbar province, he sent his father a short barking on a noble calling. And Evans stayed in messagesayinghewasOK.Aurelianoneverheard touchwithScherryashewentthroughtraining,of- from his son again. At 10 AM on 16 April, four feringcongratulationswhenScherrybecameamor- Marinesarrivedathishouse.WhenAurelianoasked tarman, the same job Evans held when he first iftheywerethereabouthisson,theMarinesdidn’t joinedtheMarineCorps. speak, but after a moment, they explained: Jesse ScherrywasdeployedtoAnbarprovinceinMarch haddiedinIraqaboutsevenhoursearlier,killedby 2007.Hediedafteronlyaboutamonththere.The hostilefire. Marines who broke the news to his mother said “Ourliveswillneverbethesame,”saysAureliano, therehadbeenanaccident.Scherryhadbeenriding whose grief is colored by the anger he feels over intheturretofaHumveewhenhereachedtogeta losing a son to a war he does not support. “Now low-hanging wire out of the way. Electric current that my son is gone, there is a vacancy in Iraq. killedhim. Maybethepresidentwouldliketosendoneofhis InthedaysafterScherry’sdeath,Marianneasked daughtersovertheretocontinuetofightinJesse’s theMarineswhohadcometoherhouseiftheycould place.” © 2008 Encyclopædia Britannica, Inc. 6 YEARINREVIEW “HEWANTEDTOFIGHT” neversentit,asthearmyeventuallylethimin.His Blue,Shaun motherPatriciafoundtheletteramonghisthingsa Age25.1stlieutenant,USMarineCorps.2ndBattal- fewdaysafterhedied. ion,7thMarineRegiment,1stMarineDivision,1st Likemanyotherparentsofservicemembers,she MarineExpeditionaryForce hadtriedherbesttopersuadehimnottojoin.“You Hostilefire,Anbarprovince don’twanttogooverthere,”sherememberstelling him.Genevieidolizedhismother.Helistedherashis Before he left for Iraq, Shaun Blue never talked “biggestinspiration”inhis2003senioryearbook.But aboutthewarwithhisfriends.Hedidn’tneedto.“We joiningthemilitarywasonethinghehadtodoonhis allknewwhereeachotherstood,”saysMikeBell,a own,withorwithouthismother’sblessing.Beforehe fellowMarinewhoattendedtheUniversityofSouth- leftforbasictraining,Patriciarememberstellinghim, ernCaliforniawithBlue.Theywerejuniorswhenthe “Isupportyou100%.” warbegan.“Allofuswantedtogo.Allofuswanted HismotherhastriedtomakesenseofGenevie’s tobethere.” death by holding tight to the notion that he was Bluehadconsidereddroppingoutofcollegetoen- watchingoverhisfellowsoldiersinhislastmoments. listintheMarinesratherthanfinishingschooland Itwasafamiliarrole.“HewasrealbigonSuperman,” enteringasanofficer.Hewasavoraciousreader,a shesays.GenevietattooedaredandgoldSonhis philosophymajorwhoseinterestsrangedfromhard chest.Whenhisparentsseparatedafewyearsago, sciencestoRomanarchitecture.(Hismothersayshe Geneviestayedwithhismomand“tookoverthefa- askedforacopyofMobyDickasaChristmaspresent therlyrole,”sherecalls,helpingthemworkthrough insecondgrade.)Incollegehewasasseriousabout their problems and get back together. That’s why, conditioninghisbodyashewashismind.Heplayed whenhedied,shewantedhimtobeburiedinArling- pickupbasketballinsomeofLA’stoughestneighbor- tonNationalCemetery.“That’swhereheroesgo,”she hoods.Once,lateatnight,afterdrinkingbeerwith says.“Hewasmyhero.” Bell,BluetoldBellhewasgoingforarun.Hedonned aflakjacketforaddedweightandranthedarkened ANEWFAMILY’SLIFECUTSHORT LA streets alone for hours, finally returning to the DeLeon,Mario houseshortlybeforedawn. Age26.Sergeant,USArmy.1stBattalion,18thReg- BluesetoffforhisfirstdeploymenttoIraqon4Jul iment,2ndBrigadeCombatTeam,1stInfantryDivi- 2005. He joined the Marine campaign in Anbar sion province,leadingaplatoonintheFallujaharea.Even Sniperfire,Baghdad inthedesertreachesofIraq,Bluefoundwaystocall BellandhisyoungersisterAmyBlue,whowasliving When Mario De Leon returned home to the rolling inIrelandatthetime.“Thosephonecallsfromhim hills of Petaluma CA for the last time, dozens of werethehighlightsofmydays,”saysAmy.“Hearing well-wishers, firefighters, and police officers lined himacrossallthosemiles,itwaslikehewasright the streets and stood on overpasses to see the therewithme.”Hewaskilledhalfwaythroughasec- blackhearsegoby.Agroupofteenagegirlshelda ondtourinAnbar,whileridinginthepassengerseat signthatreadWELOVEYOU.ForDeLeon’smother of a Humvee that was hit by a roadside bomb. Barbara,theshowofrespectwasinpartasalvefor “Twenty-fiveyearsissoshort,”hissistersays,“butI an old wound. De Leon’s father had served two amveryluckythatIcouldcallhimabrotheranda tours in Vietnam. When he returned to the US, truebestfriendforthatlong.” “they treated him like crap,” she says. The motor- “Hewantedtofight,”saysBellofhisfallenfriend. cadesandhand-paintedsignsthathonoredMario’s “Hereally,reallydid.Hecouldn’twait.” death were in stark contrast to the reprehensible way returning soldiers were treated in the last un- AKNACKFORWATCHINGOUTFOROTHERS popularwar.“Americaistryingtomakeupforthat,” Genevie,Aaron shesays. Age22.Privatefirstclass,USArmy.1stSquadron, Mariowasshywhenitcametopraiseandgratitude. 4thCavalryRegiment,4thInfantryBrigadeCombat Strangersstoppedhimandsaidthankyou,buthe Team,1stInfantryDivision didn’tknowhowtoreact.Barbarahadworriedthat IEDblast,Baghdad shewouldlosehimtogangsanddrugsinhighschool. But he cleaned up and enlisted in the army after Asagunnerinascoutunit,AaronGenevieoften graduation.Itwasn’tlongbeforeDeLeonwasshoul- rodethroughBaghdadpoppedupoutofthetopofhis deringaheavySAW(squadautomaticweapon)gun Humvee,manningabelt-fedautomaticmachinegun. on his broad 1.9-m (6-ft 2-in) frame through the Gunners are the eyes and ears of the driver, con- ruggedpassesofAfghanistan. stantlyscanningthehorizonforthreats.InBaghdad’s Whenhefinishedhistourin2002,heleftthearmy congestedstreets,theyarealsotrafficcops—waving and used the GI Bill to enroll at a local junior col- carsoutoftheway,shoutingatdriverswhogettoo lege. That’s where he charmed his wife Erika with close. That’s what Genevie was doing the day he hishandsomeface,hisgoofygrinandaboyishob- died,tellinghisdrivertomaneuveraroundanIraqi session with ThunderCats cartoons and X-Men national-police checkpoint when a roadside bomb comic books. But by 2006, with a new baby boy wentoffandkilledhiminstantly. namedKeoniinthehouse,hedecidedtoreenlist. Ascoutinthe1stInfantryDivisionofFortRileyKS, He hoped a career in the military would provide a Geneviehadtofighttogetintothearmy.Militarydoc- stableincomeforhisfamily.HearrivedinBaghdad tors told him he couldn’t enlist with his history of inOctober2007andwaspromotedtosergeantand asthmaandshoulderproblems.ButGenevieknewhe squadleader. could handle the training. He videotaped himself Twoweekslater,MarioDeLeoncameintoanenemy doingrigorous20-minuteworkoutstoshowthathe sniper’ssightsinBaghdadwhileleadingapatrol.His wouldn’tslowdownhisunit.Heevendraftedaletter squadfightsonwithouthim.“Iwishtohell,”Barbara toPresidentBushaskinghimtointervene.Genevie says,“they’dgetthemhome.” © 2008 Encyclopædia Britannica, Inc. YEARINREVIEW 7 The Virtual World of Online Gaming byMichaelRay V irtualworldsgeneratedbillionsofrealdollarsin (1999).Growthfortheseearlygameswasrelatively 2006–07 as millions of players around the slowbutsteadywiththeexceptionofLineage,theex- worldfought,bought,crafted,andsoldinava- plosive popularity of which was mainly due to the riety of online environments. The most populous, earlyandwidespreadavailabilityofhigh-speedInter- Blizzard Entertainment’s World of Warcraft, drew netconnectionsinSouthKorea.Thispopularitydid sevenmillionsubscribers(withmorethanfivemillion notcomewithoutaprice,however.AnumberofKo- in China alone). This total represented more than reanplayersdiedofexhaustionaftermarathongam- half of the massively multiplayer online game ingsessions,anda2005SouthKoreangovernment (MMOG)communityin2006,anditbroughtinmore surveyshowedthatmorethanhalfamillionKoreans than$1billioninretailsalesandsubscriptionfees sufferedfrom“Internetaddiction.”Gamecompanies for Blizzard. MMOGs differed from traditional PC fundeddozensofprivatecounselingcentersforad- gamesinanumberofimportantways.First,Internet dicted gamers in an effort to forestall legislation, connectivitywasaprerequisiteforallMMOGs,asthe suchasthatpassedbyChinain2005,thatwould gamescouldbeplayedonlyafteroneloggedinto forcedesignerstoimposein-gamepenaltiesforplay- the server that hosted the game world (popular erswhospentmorethanthreeconsecutivehourson- MMOGsrequireddozensofsuchserverstoaccom- line. modatetheirlargerplayerbases).Second,thesocial BythetimeWorldofWarcraftdebutedinNovember aspectofinteractingwiththousandsofplayersworld- 2004, the global gaming market was ready for a widefrequentlyovershadowedthegamecontentit- change.WiththenotableexceptionsofEVEOnline,a self.A2006studyfoundthatalmostathirdoffe- gameofinterstellarcorporateintrigue,andthesu- male players and nearly 10% of male players had perhero-themedCityofHeroes,themarketwassatu- dated someone they met rated with “swords and in a game. Third, most “ sorcery” fare. World of MMOGs operated on a Many groups were eager Warcraft’s attention to subscriptionbasis,charg- humorandteamplayand ingamonthlyfeeinaddi- to target one of the itsshallowlearningcurve tiontotheinitialpurchase brought in millions of ca- price of the game soft- fastest-growing commu- sual gamers who had ware. Some companies never before tried an offered frequent down- nities on the Internet— MMOG. This widespread loadable “patches” of success brought its own new game content to Second Life’s popula- challenges for Blizzard, makethesemonthlyfees however, when the com- morepalatabletoplayers, tion topped 8 million in pany temporarily sus- whileothersofferedtheir pended the account of a games free of charge to July 2007, and its num- transsexual player over players who were willing freedomofspeechissues. totolerateastreamofin- bers were increasing by While that incident gameadvertisements. ” seemedtohavebeenthe Though World of War- some 10,000 a day. resultofaterriblemiscom- craft and other MMOGs munication on Blizzard’s utilized the advanced part, it did open a dia- graphics and high-end logueonthenatureofon- processing power typical lineworlds.Weretheylike ofthecurrentgenerationofPCgames,onlinegaming privateclubs,wherethemanagementcouldrestrict haditsrootsinsomeoftheearliestcomputingtech- bothmembershipandspeech?Ordidtheyfallunder nologies.Bythelate1970s,manyuniversitiesinthe the scope of a public accommodation, where dis- USwerelinkedbyARPANET,aprecursortotheInter- criminationwasexpresslyprohibitedbyUSlaw? net.ThestructureofARPANETalloweduserstocon- Anotherissuethatgamepublishershadtofacewas necttheircomputerstoacentralmainframeandin- theriseofsecondaryeconomiesoutsidetheirgame teract in what was close to real time. In 1980 worlds.UltimaOnlinedesignerswerethefirsttoob- ARPANETwaslinkedtotheUniversityofEssex,Col- servethisphenomenonatworkwhenacastleintheir chester,England,wheretwoundergraduatestudents gameworldsoldforseveralthousanddollarsonthe hadwrittenatext-basedfantasyadventuregamethat onlineauctionsiteeBay.Thiswasthebeginningofa theycalledMUD,or“multiuserdungeon.”Whenthe marketvaluedatmorethan$1billionin2006.Play- first outside users connected to MUD through ersspenthoursearningin-gamewealth,huntingfor ARPANET,onlinegamingwasborn.Soonotherpro- rare weapons, and gaining power and prestige for grammers expanded on the original MUD design, their characters so that the fruits of their virtual addinggraphicflourishes,chatfunctions,andplayer laborscouldbeexchangedforrealcash.Thebuyer groups(orguilds).Thesebasicfeatures,aswellas andsellerwouldagreeonapurchaseprice;thefunds thefantasysetting,carriedoverintothenextgenera- would be transferred electronically; and the two tion of online games, which were the first true wouldthenmeetinthegameworldtocompletethe MMOGs. transaction. Some Chinese companies turned this ThefirstwaveofMMOGsincludedsuchgamesas intoseriousbusiness,employinghundredsof“gold UltimaOnline(debutedin1997),theSouthKorean farmers,”whoplayedthegameinanefforttohoard blockbuster Lineage (1998), and Sony’s EverQuest resources that would be sold to players in South © 2008 Encyclopædia Britannica, Inc. 8 YEARINREVIEW KoreaortheUnitedStates.MostMMOGcompanies dollars at a rate of approximately 250:1. Players soughttocontrolthisbehaviorbybanningtheac- could then purchase in-game items, customize counts of suspected gold farmers (Blizzard closed thoseitemsbyusing3D-imagingsoftware,andre- 18,000 such accounts in October–December sellthemataprofit.Forsome,craftingitemsand 2005).Sonyco-optedthesecondarymarketwhenit managingvirtualrealestateinSecondLifebecame launched Station Exchange, a service designed to a “first life” business. A German couple, acting facilitatethebuyingandsellingofvirtualgoodsinits throughtheirin-gamepersonaAnsheChung,earned EverQuest games. Thus far, however, Linden Lab almost$200,000in2006bydevelopingandmar- wastheonlycompanytodesignagamearoundavir- keting property within Second Life. Many groups tualeconomy.ThatgamewasSecondLife. wereeagertotargetoneofthefastest-growingcom- InmanywayssimilartoTheSims,thetop-selling munitiesontheInternet—SecondLife’spopulation PCgameofalltime,SecondLifewaslessagame topped8millioninJuly2007,anditsnumberswere andmoreavirtualworld.ThoughTheSimsOnline increasingbysome10,000aday.StarwoodHotels wasarelativefailurewhenitlaunchedinlate2002, builtaresortonavirtualdesertisland;BBCRadio1 SecondLifebecamearunawaysuccess.Thediffer- createdaconcertvenueforonlinemusicfestivals; encewasintheeconomicmodelsadoptedbythe Sweden opened a virtual embassy; and Virginia twogames.WhereasTheSimsOnlinewascriticized politicianMarkWarnerconductedatown-hallinter- foritslackofanycleargoalsforplayers,SecondLife viewwithaSecondLifereporter.ThecityofVancou- offered players the opportunity to use the game verestablishedapolicedepartmentcompletewith worldandtheirowntalentstomakeasmuchmoney customuniformsandbadges,asarecruitingtoolfor astheypossiblycould.Foramonthlysubscription itstechnology-relatedcrimesunit.Asthegamebe- fee,playersreceivedanallowanceofLindens(the camemorelikereality,someplayersjokedthatthey in-gamecurrency)thatofficiallyexchangedwithUS wereinneedofa“thirdlife.” MichaelRayisafreelancewriterandaResearchEditoratEncyclopædiaBritannica. The US 2006 Midterm Elections byDavidC.Beckwith I nastingingrebuketoPres.GeorgeW.Bushand vidualcongressman,usuallyatthebehestofalob- hisparty,votersswungdecisivelytoDemocratsin byistwhoreciprocatedwithcampaigncontributions. 2006 US congressional and state elections.The By 2006, however, many of the reforms had been Republicans’ 12-year control of Congress was eroded,andearmarkingwasbackwithavengeance. abruptlyended,andrecentGOPgainsinstatelegis- A second-rank GOP legislator was imprisoned in laturesandgovernorshipswerereversedinanation- Marchfortradingearmarksforbribes,andinSep- wideDemocraticsurge.Onthefederallevel,Democ- temberasix-termrepresentative,BobNeyofOhio, rats captured 31 new seats in the US House of admittedtocriminalactsassociatedwithbribesand Representatives, for a gift giving. Later that prospective 233–202 “ monthMarkFoley,another advantage in the new The Republicans’12-year senior Republican, was Congress.Moresurpris- forcedtoresignafterpub- ingly, Democrats effec- control of Congress was licationofsexuallysugges- tivelygained6USSen- tivee-mailshehadwritten ate seats, turning a abruptly ended, and toformerHousepages.Al- 55–45deficitintonar- though some Democrats row 51–49 control. recent GOP gains in state were accused of ethical That meant that a di- improprieties as well, the vided government (one legislatures and governor- year’s multiple ethics partycontrollingtheex- charges only intensified ecutive branch, the ships were reversed in a voterdemandforchange. other the legislative Sen. George Allen of Vir- branch), mandated by nationwide Democratic ginia,apotential2008Re- USvotersfor26ofthe publican presidential can- ” past 38 years, would surge. didate, used the term returnagainin2007.A macaca (the definition of seriesofseriousethical which was variously a controversiesbedeviled monkey, a town in South theRepublicanmajority Africa, or a racial slur duringtheyear,allowingDemocratstodecry“acul- againstAfricanimmigrants)whenreferringtoaDe- tureofcorruption”inWashington.Investigationsof mocratic campaign worker of Indian descent who officialswhodealtwithconvictedGOPlobbyistJack was recording campaign-rally remarks for Internet Abramoff led indirectly to the resignation of Tom use. Allen urged followers to “give a welcome to DeLay,aseniorTexascongressman,andatainton macaca, here.” Though he later apologized, Allen severalotherRepublicans.GOPproblemsraneven lostaclosereelectionbattle.Publicdissatisfaction deeper, however. In 1994, when Republicans cap- withthewarinIraqtopped65%byyear’send,negat- turedtheUSHouseafter40yearsintheminority, ingPresidentBush’seffortstoassistindividualRe- they relied on a “Contract with America” that publican candidates in their reelection bids and promised 10 specific reforms. One was a curb on spilling into Democratic politics as well. Sen. Joe earmarking,spendingonprojectspushedbyanindi- Lieberman of Connecticut, his party’s 2000 vice © 2008 Encyclopædia Britannica, Inc. YEARINREVIEW 9 presidential nominee and Bush’s strongest Demo- Democratsdidpromiseearlyactiononseveralbills, craticallyinthewaronterrorism,losthisAugustpri- includingonestoraisetheminimumwageandvoid marytoanantiwaropponent.Hewonreelectionas recenttaxconcessionstounpopularoilcompanies. an independent in November only with substantial Democratsmainlyconcentratedoncriticizingnumer- Republicansupport.Incontrastto1994,theout-of- ous Republicanmissteps in Iraq and in their man- power party did not publish a clear, detailed alter- agementofCongress.Thestrategyworked,butthe nateblueprintforthefuture,inpartbecauseofin- direction that the Democrats would take was any- ternal Democratic divisions over key issues. thingbutclear. DavidC.Beckwithisafreelancewriter. Outsourcing War—The Surge in Private Military Firms byPeterSaracino T heconflictinIraqfocusedrenewedattentionon wrong,however,toconcludethatPMFsarenewcom- theroleplayedbyprivatemilitaryfirms(PMFs) erstowarfare.Priortothe19thcentury,itwascom- inmodernwar.In2006morethan60firmsem- mon for states to contract for military services, in- ploying20,000armedpersonnelwereestimatedto cluding combat. The word soldier itself is derived beoperatinginIraq,whichmadePMFsthesecond fromtheLatinsolidus,meaningagoldcoin.During largest foreign military contingent, after the United the 3rd century BC, Alexander the Great employed States. These firms con- mercenary forces to help duct vital security duties, “ conquerAsia,andBritain ranging from escorting In 2006 more than 60 hired German soldiers convoys of freight to pro- called Hessians to fight tecting key facilities and firms employing 20,000 the colonists during the leaders. The industry American Revolution even has its own lobby armed personnel were (1775–83). In the 17th group, the Private Secu- and 18th centuries, the rity Company Association estimated to be operat- British East India Com- ofIraq,withnearly50in- pany and its Danish, ternational corporate ing in Iraq, which made Dutch, and French rivals members. PMFs have all had private armies to also attracted unwanted private military firms the help defend their govern- attention,however,includ- ment-sanctionedbusiness ing allegations that con- second largest foreign interestsinAsia. tractors working in 2003 as military interrogators military contingent, after EFFECTSONMILITARY andtranslatorsattheno- ” The growth of the mod- toriousAbuGhraibprison the United States. ern privatized military in- in Iraq were involved in dustry has had an effect theabuseofprisoners.In onthearmedforcesthat March2006ajuryfound theywereintendedtoas- the PMF Custer Battles sist. With PMFs offering guiltyofhavingdefraudedtheUSgovernmentofmil- dailywagesofupto$1,000toattracthighlytrained lionsofdollarsforworkdonewhileundercontractin staff, there has been an exodus of soldiers from Iraq. manyspecialforces.Britain’sSpecialAirService,the USArmy’sSpecialForces,andtheCanadianArmy’s THEEVOLUTIONOFPMFs JointTaskForce2haveallacknowledgedproblems ThetermPMF—alsoprivatesecuritycompanyand retainingpersonnelandareofferingspecialbonuses military services provider—is a catch-all expression andpayincreasesinanefforttocompetewithlucra- that includes traditional security firms employing tivewagesintheprivatesector. armedguards,companiesshippingdefensematériel, Whenamilitaryorganizationhasnoorganiccapa- consultantsofferingadviceonstrategy,andmilitary bility, it becomes dependent on private industry to trainers.Unliketraditionaldefenseindustries,PMFs provideit.In2000,forexample,theCanadiannavy operateincombatzonesandotherareaswherevio- had no logistics ships, and the government con- lencemaybeimminent.States,privateindustry,and tractedashippingcompanytotake580vehiclesand humanitarianaidagenciesallemploytheservicesof 390seacontainersfullofequipmentbacktoCanada PMFs. following the completion of NATO operations in The modern PMF is a product of the end of the Kosovo.Owingtoadisputeoverunpaidbills,theship ColdWar;intheearly1990smanycountriesslashed loitered in international waters for two weeks until defensebudgetsfollowingthedemiseoftheSoviet Canadian military personnel boarded the ship and Union.Thiscoincidedwiththegrowingtrendofgov- forcedittodockinaCanadianport. ernmentstooutsourceservicestoprivateindustry. Despitetheseproblems,PMFsarenowcalledupon As a consequence armed forces were left to carry todeliverservicespreviouslyconsideredthedomain outtheirmissionswithfewerships,aircraft,andper- ofmilitarypersonnel.Kellogg,Brown&Root(KBR) sonnel,leavingmoresupportandrear-areafunctions runs the only permanent US base in Africa (Camp (e.g., repairing tanks, training pilots, and preparing LemonierinDjibouti,atthemouthoftheRedSea). meals)tobeoutsourcedtocontractors.Itwouldbe KBRhasmorethan700employeeswhodolaundry, © 2008 Encyclopædia Britannica, Inc.
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