Encyclopaedia Britannica 2010 Almanac

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by  Encyclopaedia Britannica

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TABLEOFCONTENTS 3
YearinReview LifeonEarth..........................167
Geology.............................169
Features
Geography..........................171
TheUSinAfghanistan:TheLongestWar....5
PreservingNature......................175
byArynBaker,TIME/Afghanistan
Health................................176
HowTwitterWillChangetheWayWeLive...6
byStevenJohnsonforTIME DietandExercise.....................181
SkyrocketingFoodPrices:AGlobalCrisis...7
byJanetH.Clark
World
SeedBanks—PreservingCropDiversity.....8
byGregoryMcNamee Iran:PowerofthePeople................187
CombatingtheCrisisinDarfur............9 byNahidSiamdoust,TIME/Tehran
byAlexMeixner CountriesoftheWorld..................188
Chronology,July2008–June2009
MonthbyMonth.......................11
FLAGS............................ PLATES1–6
Disasters,July2008–June2009
MAPS............................PLATES7–16
MonthbyMonth.......................31
People RulersandRegimes....................488
Populations...........................501
TheTIME100,2009.....................35
Language.............................502
CelebritiesandNewsmakers..............37
Scholarship...........................504
Obituaries..............................76
Religion ..............................505
The2009AnnualMegacensusof
Awards Religions............................508
TIME’sTop100Films....................89 Terrorism.............................512
TIME’sPersonoftheYear,1927–2008.....90 MilitaryAffairs.........................515
NobelPrizes............................91
SpecialAchievementAwards.............104 UnitedStates
ScienceHonors........................109 TheGreatRecession:AmericaBecomes
ThriftNation.........................517
byNancyGibbs,TIME
Nature,Science,Medicine,&Technology
History...............................518
TheNewAgeofExtinction...............115 UnitedStatesChronology..............518
byBryanWalsh,TIME ImportantDocumentsinUSHistory.....520
Time.................................116 Government...........................532
TheUniverse..........................123 ThePresidency ......................532
TheSupremeCourt...................557
Constellations.......................124
TheCongress........................560
AstronomicalPhenomenafor2010 .....128
TheSenate .......................560
MeasurementsandNumbers ............144 TheHouseofRepresentatives........562
AppliedScience........................149 MilitaryAffairs.........................569
Communications.......................149 Population............................575
AerospaceTechnology ..................151 TheStatesandOtherAreas..............582
SpaceExploration....................151 StateGovernment......................608
SpaceExplorationFirsts...............154
Cities.................................613
AirTravel..............................155
LawandCrime.........................615
Meteorology...........................156
Society...............................620
GeologicDisasters .....................160
Family..............................620
CivilEngineering.......................162 Education...........................623
4 TABLEOFCONTENTS
Business Sport
TheFutureofWork.....................625 SportingCodesforCountries.............695
byDavidvonDrehleandAnneFisher,
TIME TheOlympicGames ....................696
USEconomy...........................626 SpecialOlympics.......................760
Energy..............................627 AutomobileRacing .....................760
TravelandTourism .....................628 Baseball..............................762
Employment...........................630 Basketball............................767
ConsumerPrices.......................637 Bowling...............................771
USBudget............................638
Cricket ...............................773
USTaxes..............................642
Cycling...............................773
Football ..............................775
Arts,Entertainment,&Leisure
US.................................776
TheCultureCrunch:Artsandthe Canadian...........................783
Recession...........................645 Australian...........................783
byRichardLacayo,TIME Rugby..............................784
AssociationFootball(Soccer)...........784
MotionPictures........................646
Golf..................................788
AcademyAwards.....................646
HorseRacing..........................793
Television.............................660
EmmyAwards .......................660 IceHockey............................802
Theater...............................664 Marathon.............................806
TonyAwards.........................664 Skiing................................808
EncyclopædiaBritannica’s
20NotableUSTheaterCompanies....667 SledDogRacing.......................813
Music................................667 Swimming ............................814
GrammyAwards......................667 Tennis................................819
EncyclopædiaBritannica’s
Track&Field..........................834
20World-ClassOrchestras...........673
EncyclopædiaBritannica’s Volleyball.............................840
Top20OperaCompanies............673
WeightLifting..........................840
ArtsandLettersAwards.................674
PulitzerPrizes .......................674
ArchitectureAwards ....................694 INDEX....................................842
The US in Afghanistan: The Longest War
byArynBaker,TIME/Afghanistan
S
evenandahalfyearsafterUStroopsarrivedin mentors for the Afghans. Much of the more than
AfghanistanfollowingtheattacksofSeptember US$32billionthattheUSgovernmenthasspentinaid
11,2001,thewarthereismoredeadly—and toAfghanistansince2002hasgonethroughthemili-
moremuddled—thanever.WhenAmericantroopsfirst taryoritsprovincialreconstructionteams.Theproj-
wenttoAfghanistan,theydidsotooverthrowtheTal- ectsaredesignedtoearngoodwillforforeignforces
ibanregime,whichthenruledthenationandprovided asmuchasforlocalgovernors,buttheyalsohavethe
ahavenforal-Qaeda.Inlessthanthreemonths,the unintendedconsequenceofunderminingthecentral
Talibanwasdefeated,andaUS-supportedadminis- government,whichnevergetsachancetotakecredit
tration,headedbyPres.HamidKarzai,wasinstalled forprovidingbasicservicessuchasroads,electricity,
inKabul.Yetin2009,theUSisstillfightingtheTal- and education. “We aren’t here to win hearts and
iban,andal-Qaedaoperativesarestillplottingfrom minds,”saysJeremyBrenner,aUSStateDepartment
Afghanistan. (Taliban, these days, no longer refers adviserbasedinJalalabad.“Whatweneedistoen-
justtotheIslamicextremistregimethatonceruled genderhopeandfaithintheAfghangovernment.”
thecountry;thewordhasbecomesynonymouswith TheexperienceoftheAmericansfightinginthena-
anynumberofantigovernmentforces.) tion’seasternKorengalValleyillustrateshowdifficult
Andonepartoftheregion’sdeadlymuddlehasgot- thiswaris.OvertheperiodfromJuly2008toApril
tenworse.In2001therewerefearsthatthewarin 2009,BravoCompany,a150-strongunitofthe1st
Afghanistan would destabilize Pakistan. (The Pash- Battalion,26thInfantryRegiment,lostsevenmenin
tunethnicgroup,whichmakesupalargepartofthe theKorengalwhiletryingtocooldownatoxiccaul-
Talibaninsurgency,straddlestheborderbetweenthe dronoflocalinsurgents,Talibanleaders,foreignji-
twocountries.)Thosefearsarenowreality;thePak- hadis,andal-Qaedamembers.Heresuccesscannot
istaniTalibanthreatensnuclear-armedPakistan’svi- bemeasuredinterritorygained,schoolsbuilt,orclin-
abilityasastateevenmorethanitscousinsjeopar- ics opened. Irrigation pipes and water pumps are
dizeAfghanistan’s. blownupbytheinsurgentsassoonastheyarebuilt.
ItisbecausethewarinAfghanistanthreatensto Sometimesprogressissoslowitfeelslikeastale-
destabilizeanentireregionthatithasbecomeAmer- mate, admits company commander Capt. James
ica’s biggest foreign policy challenge. On 18 Feb Howell.But,hesays,“ifwecanreachapointwhere
2009, President Obama committed an additional thevillagerswanttoworkwithusandtheTalibanare
17,000troopstoAfghanistan;whentheyallarrive, theonlythingstoppingthem,that’ssuccess.”
therewillbeabout55,000troopstherefromtheUS, Agovernmentinwhichpeoplehavehopewouldbe
plus37,000fromitsallies.ThelatestAfghanwaris onethatoffersthemsecurity.TheUSexitstrategyfor
nowObama’swar.Theadministrationhassignaled Afghanistan,accordingtoAdm.MikeMullen,chair-
thatitisdownsizingexpectationsaboutwhatcanstill manoftheJointChiefsofStaff,istostrengthenthe
beachieved:theprincipalgoalnowistocounterter- Afghan forces so they can protect the fragile ad-
rorismandbringadegreeofstabilitytoAfghanistan— vancesofthegovernment.Tothatend,Obamahas
nottoturnapoorandfractiousnationintoaflour- pledged4,000trainersandmentorstohelpboost
ishingdemocraticstate. theAfghanNationalArmyandpolice.
WhenObamalaidouthisnewstrategy,hemadeit But success in Afghanistan will mean nothing if
clearthatthemarkofsuccesswouldbetheability“to fighterscanfindsanctuaryinPakistan.Commanders
disrupt,dismantle,anddefeatal-QaedainPakistan in Afghanistan say the battle next door will be far
andAfghanistanandtopreventtheirreturntoeither morecomplicatedthananythingtheyhaveseen,sim-
countryinthefuture.”Butaccomplishingeventhat plybecausethePakistanimilitarydoesn’thavethe
comparativelylimitedobjectiveatthisstagewillre- skills and resources to conduct an effective coun-
quireamassiveandsustainedUScommitment—one terinsurgency. US-operated Predator drones have
thatinvolvesmorethanmilitarybootsontheground. successfullytargetedal-Qaedaleadershipinthebor-
Al-Qaedastillthrivesintheungovernedtribalareas derareas,butatthecostofinflamingthePashtun-
alongtheborderbetweenthetwocountries,andwhile led insurgency on the Pakistani side. Stabilizing
manyofitsmembershavebeenkilled,newrecruits Afghanistanmightwellbecomecrucialtopreventing
quicklytaketheirplace.USsoldiershavelearnedthat thefarmoreterrifyingprospectofanIslamicextrem-
todenyal-QaedaafootholdinAfghanistanwillrequire isttakeoverinPakistan.SaysUSArmyBrig.Gen.John
theestablishmentofagovernmentthatAfghanscan Nicholson,Jr.,whocommandsUSandNATOtroopsin
believein,thesecuritythatallowsthemtosupportit, southernAfghanistan:“IfthePashtunpopulationof
andjobsthatprovideanalternativetofighting.“We Pakistanseesamoderate,IslamicandPashtun-led
arenotgoingtokillourwayoutofthiswar,”saysLieut. governmentinAfghanistan,well,it’shardtoargue
Col.BrettJenkinson,commanderoftheUSbattalion with.SowehavepotentiallyagreaterimpactinPak-
stationedintheKorengalvalley.“Whatweneedisa istanwithsuccessintheeast.”
betterrecruitingpitchfordisaffectedyouth.Youcan’t Getting it right in both Afghanistan and Pakistan
buildhopewithmilitarymight.Youbuilditthroughde- now,afteryearsofWesterndriftandinattention,will
velopmentandgoodgovernance.” comeataheavypriceinAmericanmoneyandlives.
Otherthanleadingbyexample,themilitarycando Having doubled down in the hopes of winning in
littletobolsterfaithinthestate.Aspartofhisplan, Afghanistan, the Obama administration has no
Obamahasproposedaciviliansurge—aphalanxof choicebuttolivewiththeconsequences.
6 YEARINREVIEW
How Twitter Will Change the Way We Live
byStevenJohnsonforTIME
T
heonethingyoucansayforcertainaboutTwit- liticalactivistsinChinathatthegovernmentblocked
teristhatitmakesaterriblefirstimpression. accesstoitforaperiod,inanattempttocensordis-
You hear about this new service that lets you cussion of the 20th anniversary of the Tiananmen
send140-characterupdatestoyour“followers,”and Squaremassacre.
youthink,Whydoestheworldneedthis,exactly?It’s Therapid-fireinnovationwe’reseeingaroundTwitter
notasifwewereallsittingaroundfouryearsago isnotnew,ofcourse.Facebook,whoseaudienceis
scratchingourheadsandsaying,“Ifonlytherewerea still several times as large as Twitter’s, went from
technologythatwouldallowmetosendamessageto beingawaytoscopeoutthemostattractivecollege
my50friends,alertingtheminrealtimeaboutmy freshmentotheSocialOperatingSystemoftheInter-
choiceofbreakfastcereal.” net,supportingavastecosystemofnewapplications
ThebasicmechanicsofTwitterareremarkablysim- createdbymajormediacompanies,individualhack-
ple.Userspublishtweets—those140-charactermes- ers,gamecreators,politicalgroups,andcharities.The
sages—fromacomputerormobiledevice.Asasocial AppleiPhone’slong-termcompetitiveadvantagemay
network,Twitterrevolvesaroundtheprincipleoffol- wellprovetobethemorethan15,000newapplica-
lowers. When you choose to follow another Twitter tions that have been developed for the device, ex-
user,thatuser’stweetsappearinreversechronologi- pandingitsfunctionalityincountlessingeniousways.
calorderonyourmainTwitterpage.Ifyoufollow20 ThehistoryoftheWebfollowedasimilarpattern.A
people,you’llseeamixoftweetsscrollingdownthe platform originally designed to help scholars share
page:breakfast-cerealupdates,interestingnewlinks, academicdocuments,itnowletsyouwatchtelevision
musicrecommendations,evenmusingsonthefuture shows,playpokerwithstrangersaroundtheworld,
of education. The mix creates a media experience publish your own newspaper, rediscover your high-
quite unlike anything that has come before it, school girlfriend—and, yes, tell the world what you
strangelyintimateandatthesametimecelebrity-ob- hadforbreakfast.Thespeedwithwhichusershave
sessed.YouglanceatyourTwitterfeedoverthatfirst extended Twitter’s platform points to a larger truth
cupofcoffee,andinafewsecondsyoufindoutthat aboutmoderninnovation.Whenwetalkaboutinno-
your nephew got into med school and Shaquille vation and global competitiveness, we tend to fall
O’NealjustfinishedacardioworkoutinPhoenix. back on the easy metric of patents and Ph.D.’s. It
ButthekeydevelopmentwithTwitterishowwe’ve turnsouttheUSshareofbothhasbeeninsteadyde-
jury-riggedthesystemtodothingsthatitscreators clinesincepeakingintheearly1970s.Sincethemid-
neverdreamedof.Themostfascinatingthingabout 1980s, a long progression of doomsayers have
Twitterisnotwhatit’sdoingtous.It’swhatwe’re warned that our declining market share in the
doingtoit. patents-and-Ph.D.’sbusinessaugursdarktimesfor
Thisisnotjustamatterofpeoplefindinganewuse Americaninnovation.
foratooldesignedtodosomethingelse.InTwitter’s ButwhatactuallyhappenedtoAmericaninnovation
case,theusershavebeenredesigningthetoolitself. during that period? We came up with America On-
Theconventionofgroupingatopicoreventbythe line,Netscape,Amazon,Google,Blogger,Wikipedia,
“hashtag”—#hackeduor#inauguration—wassponta- Craigslist, TiVo, Netflix, eBay, the iPod and iPhone,
neouslyinventedbytheTwitteruserbase(aswasthe Xbox, Facebook, and Twitter itself. Sure, we didn’t
convention of replying to another user with the @ buildthePriusortheWii,butifyoumeasureglobal
symbol).Theabilitytosearchalivestreamoftweets innovation in terms of actual lifestyle-changing hit
wasdevelopedbyanotherstart-upaltogether,Sum- products and not just grad students, the US has
mize, which Twitter purchased last year. Thanks to beenlappingthefieldforthepast20years.
these innovations, following a live feed of tweets Howcouldtheforecastshavebeensowrong?The
aboutanevent—apoliticaldebateoraLostepisode— answeristhatwe’vebeentrackingonlypartofthein-
hasbecomeacentralpartoftheTwitterexperience. novationstory,ignoringwhatMassachusettsInstitute
But as recently as 2008, that mode of interaction ofTechnologyprofessorEricvonHippelcalls“end-
wouldhavebeentechnicallyimpossibleusingTwitter. userinnovation,”inwhichconsumersactivelymodify
It’s like inventing a toaster oven and then looking aproducttoadaptittotheirneeds.Initsshortlife,
aroundayearlaterandseeingthatyourcustomers Twitterhasbeenahothouseofend-userinnovation:
haveoftheirownaccordturneditintoamicrowave. thehashtag;searching;its11,000third-partyappli-
OneofthemosttellingfactsabouttheTwitterplat- cations;allthosecreativenewusesofTwitter—some
formisthatthevastmajorityofitsusersinteractwith of them banal, some of them spam, and some of
the service via software created by third parties. themsublime.
TherearedozensofiPhoneandBlackBerryapplica- ThisiswhatIultimatelyfindmostinspiringaboutthe
tions—allcreatedbyenterprisingamateurcodersor Twitterphenomenon.Wearelivingthroughtheworst
small start-ups—that let you manage Twitter feeds. economiccrisisingenerations,withapocalyptichead-
Thereareservicesthathelpyouuploadphotosand linesthreateningtheendofcapitalismasweknowit,
linktothemfromyourtweetsandprogramsthatmap andyetinthemiddleofthischaos,theengineersat
otherTwitizenswhoarenearyougeographically. Twitter headquarters are scrambling to keep the
Asthetoolshavemultiplied,we’rediscoveringex- serversup,applicationdevelopersarereleasingtheir
traordinarynewthingstodowiththem.InJune2009, latestbuilds,andordinaryusersarefiguringoutall
whenIraniansroseuptoprotestariggedelection, theingeniouswaystoputthesetoolstouse.There’s
supportersaroundtheworldfollowedthedemonstra- akindofresilienceherethatisworthsavoring.The
tionsinrealtimeonTwitter.Twomonthsearlier,an weather reports keep announcing that the sky is
anticommunistuprisinginMoldovawasorganizedvia falling,buthereweare—millionsofus—sittingaround
Twitter.Twitterhasbecomesowidelyusedamongpo- tryingtoinventnewwaystotalktooneanother.
YEARINREVIEW 7
Skyrocketing Food Prices: A Global Crisis
byJanetH.Clark
A
stheyear2008gotunderway,upwardlyspiral- governmentsupporttofarmersinmanyOECDcoun-
ingfoodpricesbecameofincreasingconcernto tries,whichin2007amountedtoUS$258billion,or
internationalorganizationsandreliefagencies, 23%offarmincomes.Asurgeinpetroleumpricesled
national governments, and consumers everywhere. toincreasedfertilizerandtransportcosts.Inmany
UNofficialsspeculatedthatthecrisiscouldaddan countriesadverseweatherledtocropfailure,specu-
additional100millionhungrypeopletothebillional- lation on commodity markets, and hoarding. When
readylivingonlessthanUS$1aday,thecommon CycloneNargisstruckMyanmar(Burma)on2May,it
measure of absolute poverty. The impact of rising generateda4-m(12-ft)-highstormsurgethatdevas-
foodpriceswasgreatestinless-developedcountries tatedtherice-producingIrrawaddydelta.DuringAu-
(LDCs), where spending on food accounted for gust and September, Haiti, already suffering from
40–60%ofincome,comparedwithabout15%inin- foodshortages,wasbatteredbyfoursuccessivehur-
dustrializedcountries. ricanes.ThedepreciationoftheUSdollaragainstthe
Eveninindustrializedcountries,poorfamilieswere euro and other currencies early in the year con-
beingseverelyaffectedbyageneralriseinprices,es- tributedtotheriseindollar-denominatedcommodity
peciallywhencombinedwithaneconomicdownturn prices.TheInternationalFoodPolicyResearchInsti-
andhigherunemployment.Foodpricesinthe30Or- tute(IFPRI)estimatedthat15–27%oftheincrease
ganisationforEconomicCo-operationandDevelop- wasfromthedollar’sdecline.Atthesametime,coun-
ment(OECD)membercountriesroseby7.2%yearon triesinAsiaandtheMiddleEastthatlinkedtheircur-
yearinbothJulyandAugust,thebiggestincreases rencies to the weakening dollar experienced over-
since1990,andintheUStheDepartmentofLabor heatedeconomiesandsufferedhigherpricesthan
reportedthatgrocery-storefoodpricesroseby6.6% countrieswithmoreflexibleexchangerates.
in2008,thelargestincreasesince1980. TheWorldFoodProgramme(WFP)wasthemaindis-
With spiking food costs tributorofemergencyfood
cameagrowingthreatto “ relief, with activities in
food security, which pro- morethan75countries.In
voked political repercus- UN officials speculated March,however,theorga-
sions in many LDCs. In nization announced that
Haiti, for example, food that the crisis could add it was short of money
riotsledtotheoustingof because of the soaring
Prime Minister Jacques- an additional 100 mil- priceofcerealsandother
Édouard Alexis on 12 foodstuffs. At the UN
April,andthelackofare- lion hungry people to heads of government
placement until July left meetinginJune,theWFP
thegovernmentinastate the billion already living reported that it had re-
of paralysis while social ceived US$1.2 billion in
and economic conditions on less than US$1 a day, aid, including an unex-
continuedtodeteriorate. pected US$500 million
Prices of staple food- the common measure of fromSaudiArabia.Among
stuffs escalated alarm- ” 60low-incomefood-deficit
inglyonworldmarkets.In absolute poverty. countries surveyed early
the first half of the year, in the year by the Food
thepriceofinternationally and Agriculture Organiza-
tradedfoodcommodities, tion(FAO),themostwide-
ledbygrains,roseby56%.Inthefirstquarteralone, spreadresponsewastoremoveorreduceimporttar-
thepricesofwheatandcorn(maize)roseby130% iffsonfood.ThiswasespeciallytrueinSouthand
and30%,respectively,overthesameperiodayear EastAsia,theMiddleEast,andNorthAfrica.Given
earlier,whilethecostofriceclimbed10%inboth thattarifflevelsoncerealsandvegetableoilswereal-
FebruaryandMarch.Bymidyearthepricesofcorn, readyrelativelylow,however,at8%and14%,respec-
wheat,andsoybeanshadmorethandoubled,while tively,onlysmallproportionsofthepriceriseswere
thatofricehadtripled. offset.
Anumberoffactorscontributedtotheincreasesin In the Middle East, drought reduced the summer
food prices. One was the economic emergence of harvest,andmanymajorwheat-producingcountries,
ChinaandIndia,whosepopulationswerebecoming includingIran,Iraq,andSyria,wereforcedtoincrease
increasingly affluent and thus boosting their food imports. In Saudi Arabia the annual inflation rate
consumption;inChinaannualpercapitaconsump- soaredto10.6%inJune,itshighestratein30years,
tionofmeatroseto54kg(about119lb)from20kg andwheatproductionwasextremelycostlybecause
(44 lb) in 1985. Another major factor was the in- ofhugefarmsubsidies.TheSaudigovernmentde-
creased output of biofuels made from grains and cidedinAugustthatitwouldmakeeconomicsenseto
oilseedsintheUSandtheEuropeanUnion,where outsourceitsfarmingandwasconsideringthepur-
thereweregenerous—andcontroversial—taxconces- chaseofricefarmsinThailandthroughanewinvest-
sionsordirectfinancialsupportforproducers,retail- mentfundsetuptobuyagriculturallandoverseas.
ers, or users of biofuels. In July an OECD report UnitedArabEmiratesinvestorslookingforlandfor
stronglycriticizedtheseincentivesascostlyandinef- agriculturaldevelopmentfavoredPakistan,Kazakh-
fectiveandrecommendedthatgovernmentsrefocus stan,andTheSudan.
theirpolicies.Partiallyassociatedwiththiswasthe InearlyMay,PrimeMinisterSamakSundaravejof
restrictiveandtrade-distortingeffectofahighlevelof Thailand(theworld’sbiggestriceproducer)proposed
8 YEARINREVIEW
theformationofacartelofSoutheastAsianrice-pro- 2009.Cut-pricediscountstores,whichwerealready
ducingcountries(includingVietnam,Myanmar,Laos, popularintheUS,wereproliferatinginEuropeand
andCambodia)tobesetupalongthelinesofOPEC. putting pressure on the more costly chains. The
LaosandCambodiafavoredtheidea,buttherewere searchforcheaperfoodwasgatheringmomentum
strongprotestsinthePhilippines,theworld’sbiggest eveninUScities,wheretherewasaresurgenceofso-
riceimporter.InAugustThailandannouncedplansto calledfreegans,whoscavengedthroughsupermarket
boost rice production by leasing 160,000 ha garbagebinsandothersourcesofdiscardedfood.
(395,000ac)ofunusedstatelandtopoorfarmers Despitethewidespreadfearofacontinuingrisein
andagribusinessforbiofuelcrops,sugarcane,palm, globalinflationandthenumberofpeopleneeding
andrice.Amorenovelwayofeasingfoodshortages foodaid,thefailuretoreachagreementontradelib-
wasproposedinJulybyscientistsattheNationalAu- eralizationleftagriculturalproducersinLDCsata
tonomousUniversityofMexico;theyassertedthatin- continuingdisadvantage.TheIFPRIcalculatedthatif
sects, which were nutritious and already provided export bans by some 40 food-exporting countries
part of the diet in 113 countries, should be con- werelifted,cerealpriceswouldbe30%loweronav-
sumedmorewidely.Thailand,wherecricketrearing erage.TwosmallsignsofhopeemergedinSeptem-
for food was already practiced by many families, ber.Corporateandgovernmentleadersattendedthe
hostedanFAOconferencetoexaminethebenefitsof firstUNPrivateSectorForumonFoodSustainability
insectsasafoodoption. andtheMillenniumDevelopmentGoals.Atthesame
AtanEUsummitinJuly,membercountriesweredi- time,theWFPunveiledPurchaseforProgress,anini-
videdontradereformandtheneedtoremoveagri- tiative by which governments and private founda-
culturalsubsidiesandreduceprotectionism.Forthe tions(notablytheBill&MelindaGatesFoundation
firsttime,in2008theEUdidnotusetheportionof and the Howard G. Buffett Foundation) would fi-
its agricultural budget designated for buying and nanceWFPpurchasesoffoodstuffsfromsmallfarm-
stockpiling surplus produce. The resulting unused ersinLDCs,whichwouldthusencouragelocalfood
funds,expectedtoreach>1billion(aboutUS$1.4bil- productionandoffersmallfarmersbetteraccessto
lion), were to be given to farmersin LDCsthrough worldmarkets.
JanetH.Clarkisaneditor,independentanalyst,andwriteroninternationaleconomicandfinancialtopics.
Seed Banks—Preserving Crop Diversity
byGregoryMcNamee
O
n26Feb2008,themostambitiousseed-bank importantstaplefoodcrops.Seedsamplesforthe
facility ever constructed was inaugurated in SGSVaredeliveredandstoredinsealedboxesand
Svalbard,aNorwegianarchipelagointheArctic remain the property of the country or organization
Oceanonlyabout1,000km(620mi)fromtheNorth thatdepositsthem.Bylate2008about320,000dis-
Pole.TheSvalbardGlobalSeedVault(SGSV),builtby tinctseedsamples,consistingofabout220million
the Norwegian government into the side of a per- seedsfromabout2,900plantspeciesinmorethan
mafrost-coveredmountainontheislandofSpitsber- 200 countries, had been placed in storage. The
gen,isdesignedtostoreindeepfreezetheseedsof vault’sstoragechambersareabletohold4.5million
hundreds of thou- seedsamples,foratotalof
sands of plant vari- “ 2.25billionseeds.
etiesfromcropsgrown Since the SGSV safe-
on every part of the The organization’s seed guards duplicate seed col-
globe. This high-secu- lections,itisnotintendedto
rity “doomsday” con- collectors, often traveling replace any of the roughly
servancy,builtfarfrom 1,400seedbanksthatexist
unrest and civil war, to isolated areas by foot worldwide and include na-
seeks to protect the tional and international in-
world’sagriculturalin- or muleback, have recov- stitutions, organizations fo-
heritance against dis- cusedonparticulartypesof
aster,beitfromrising ered seeds for some 2,000 crops, and regional facili-
sealevels,anasteroid ” ties.Ingeneral,theseseed
strike, pestilence, or varieties of plants... banksareintendedtopre-
even the unforeseen servethegeneticvarietyof
consequences of an plants, and for this reason
excessive reliance on theyarealsoreferredtoas
crops with single- gene banks. Conserving
sourcegeneticmodifications. cropvarietiesandrelatedwildspeciesprovidesge-
Establishedasabackupfacility,theSGSVaccepts neticvariationsthatcanbeusefulfordevelopingnew
only seed samples that are already held by other varietieswithessentialtraits,suchastoleratingnew
seedbanks.ThedepositsaremanagedbytheGlobal pestsorclimateconditions.
CropDiversityTrust,anindependentinternationalor- Amongthemostimportantglobalseedbanksisthe
ganizationthatwasestablishedin2004bytheUN MillenniumSeedBank(WestSussex,England),which
FoodandAgricultureOrganizationandtheConsulta- is managed by the Royal Botanic Gardens, Kew.
tive Group on International Agricultural Research, Openedin2000,theMillenniumSeedBankhassuc-
whichoperatesinternationalseedbanksforthemost ceededinpreservingvirtuallyallofBritain’s1,400
YEARINREVIEW 9
nativeplantsand,incollaborationwithseedbanksin northernMexico;andasunflowergrownintheGrand
otherpartsoftheworld,seekstoconserveatotalof CanyonbytheHavasupaiIndians—onethatiscom-
morethan24,000plantspecies. pletelyresistanttoarustdiseasethathasravaged
Seed banks that specialize in particular crops in- commercialsunflowercrops.
cludetheInternationalRiceGenebankattheInter- By selecting single hybrids, industrial agriculture
nationalRiceResearchInstitute(IRRI),basedinLos (thesourceofthestockadvertisedinmostcommer-
Baños,Philippines,andtheInternationalPotatoCen- cialseedcatalogs)hasdiminishedthenumberofva-
ter(IPC),basedinLima.TheIRRI,whichwasestab- rietiesoffoodplantsavailableintheUnitedStates
lishedin1960,estimatesthatithasconservedabout andothercountriestoallbutadevotedhandfulof
100,000varietiesofrice.TheIPC,whichwasestab- farmers and experimental gardeners. In the early
lished in 1971 and subsequently expanded to in- 1900s,forexample,morethan7,000varietiesofap-
cludeothertubersofAndeanorigin,countsinitscol- plesweregrowncommerciallyintheUnitedStates;
lectionsabout150wildpotatospecies. todayonlyacoupleofdozenvarietiesareavailableto
AnexampleofaregionalseedbankisNativeSeeds, mostconsumers.Theplantingofmonoculturecrops,
which was founded in 1983 in the southwestern whichincreasesstandardizationandefficiency,has
UnitedStatestohelpNativeAmericanslocateseeds replaced traditional crops in plots where they had
forgrowingtraditionalcrops.Oneoftheoldestcrop been grown and bred for centuries. As a conse-
conservancies in North America, it aims in part to quence, traditional crops, which had acquired the
make poor communities nutritionally self-sufficient. traitsthataremostsuitableforthesoilsandclimate
Theorganization’sseedcollectors,oftentravelingto of a given location, have been steadily lost. The
isolatedareasbyfootormuleback,haverecovered preservationofthisdiversityofcropswillhelpsafe-
seedsforsome2,000varietiesofplants,including guardthefutureofthefoodplantsuponwhichhu-
amaranth,oncewidelyusedforfoodandfiberinMex- mansdepend.Seedbankscandirectlyaddressthe
ico;teparybeans,afavoritefoodofthedesertpeo- concernsraisedbyadiminishmentofgeneticdiver-
plesoftheSouthwest;orach,or“mountainspinach,” sityamongcommonfoodcrops,andasplantscien-
grown in the Rio Grande uplands of New Mexico; tistsrecovervarietiesofnativefoodplantsacrossthe
panicgrass,oncearichsourceofgrainandprotein world,theyaddcolortoasadlywashed-outgenetic
for the Indian peoples of southern California and palette.
GregoryMcNameeisacontributingeditortotheEncyclopædiaBritannica,literarycriticfortheHollywoodRe-
porter,andauthorofMoveableFeasts:TheHistory,Science,andLoreofFood.
Combating the Crisis in Darfur
byAlexMeixner
I
n2008,fiveyearsafterconflictbrokeoutinthe nantlyMuslim,spokeArabic,andsharedthesame
DarfurregionofTheSudan,theprospectseemed skintone.Theresultwasanundisciplinedparamili-
dimforapoliticalsettlementtoendthewarthat tarycampaignthattargetedmen,women,andchil-
had killed as many as 300,000 people. In early dren.
2003, soon after local rebel groups took up arms In addition to the hundreds of thousands killed
against the Khartoum-based regime of Sudanese sincethebeginningofthecampaign,approximately
Pres.Omaral-Bashir,long-standingtensionsinDar- 2.5millionmorewereforcedfromtheirhomesand
fur erupted into what the US government later de- intotheSahara.Horrificstoriesofmassrape,murder,
scribed as the first genocide of the 21st century. and unspeakable atrocities became commonplace.
The rebels felt marginalized by their government, Survivorsgatheredincampsforinternallydisplaced
sawthatotherrebelsinsouthernSudanwerelikely persons throughout Darfur and in refugee camps
tobegrantedmajoreconomicandpoliticalconces- acrosstheborderineasternChadandintheCentral
sions as their own civil war against Khartoum ran AfricanRepublic.
down,andrealizedthattheythemselveswerebeing Foritsparttheinternationalcommunityreactedto
left out in the literal and figurative desert with no differentaspectsofthecrisiswithvaryingdegreesof
hopeofsimilarconcessionsorimprovedconditions. success.ThebiggestbrightspotwastheHerculean
An oil-fueled economic boom was producing sky- effortputforthbygovernmentalandnongovernmen-
scrapers in Khartoum, while Darfur continued to tal aid agencies, providing food, medicine, shelter,
existlargelywithoutroads,hospitals,orasufficient and basic services to the millions of Darfurians in
educationsystemandwassufferingthroughabrutal need.Morethan13,000internationalandSudanese
drought. aidworkersbuilttheworld’slargesthumanitarianlife-
Followingafewinitialconventionalbattleswithnew supportsysteminDarfur,savingcountlesslivesthat
rebel groups in Darfur, the Khartoum regime otherwisewouldhavebeenlosttostarvationanddis-
switched tactics and began to fight a hate-fueled ease.
counterinsurgencywarinDarfurbyfunding,arming, Less successful were international efforts to re-
andunleashingproxymilitiasknownasJanjaweed— duce the threat of physical violence to Darfurian
madeupoffightersfromnomadicgroupswhoidenti- civiliansandtoachievealastingpoliticalsolutionto
fiedthemselvesas“Arab”—onvillageswhosepeople endtheconflict.Toachievetheformer,theAfrican
identifiedthemselvesas“African.”Thisstrategyde- Union(AU)in2004deployeda7,400-strongpeace-
pended on exploiting this self-proclaimed racial di- keeping force, the African Union Mission in The
videinDarfur,anditworked,despitethefactthat Sudan(AMIS).WhenAMISwentintoDarfur,therest
both“Arab”and“African”Darfurianswerepredomi- of the international community stood by and