Empire of Individuals: American Expansion, British Angst and Tanzanian Anger PDF
Preview Empire of Individuals: American Expansion, British Angst and Tanzanian Anger
Essays–peer-reviewed USAbroad–JournalofAmericanHistoryandPolitics.Vol.1(2018) https://doi.org/10.6092/issn.2611-2752/7293 ISSN2611-2752 EmpireofIndividuals: American Expansion,British Angstand TanzanianAnger TimothyNicholson Submitted:October18,2017–Accepted:February2,2018–Published:March1,2018 Abstract Inprovidingamoreimperialtheoreticalparadigm,highlightingearlierandmoreinformalinter- ventionbyT.E.A.andPeaceCorpsvolunteersandaddressingtheirsuccessesandfailures,thisarticle demonstratesthecomplexitiescreatedbynewtransnationalconnectionsandinteractionsbetween youngAmericansandEastAfricanstudentsandtheirimportancespecificallyinTanzania.Itdelves intotheconflictswiththeT.E.A.andPeaceCorpsandthedepartingBritishcolonialteacherswor- riedabouttheirdeclininginfluence,theAmericanvolunteersandtheTanzaniangovernment,as wellasorganizationalconflictbetweentheT.E.A.andthenewPeaceCorps. Keywords:UnitedStates;Tanzania;JohnF.Kennedy;PeaceCorps;Decolonization TimothyNicholson:SaintPeter’sUniversity(UnitedStates) Contact:[email protected] TimothyNicholsonisanAssistantProfessorofHistoryatSaintPeter’sUniversityinJerseyCity,NJ.Heiswriting amanuscriptonEastAfricanyouthsandtheirinteractionwithlocalandglobalparadigmsofauthorityduring theColdWar. Copyright©2018TimothyNicholson Art.#7293 ThisworkislicensedundertheCreativeCommonsBYLicense. p.1 https://creativecommons.org/licenses/by/4.0/ AnEmpireofIndividuals USAbroad.Vol.1(2018) In1961,150AmericansarrivedinUgandaaspartofthenewTeachersforEastAfrica(TEA)orga- nization to serve as instructors in schools throughoutEast Africa. As the first large-scale American engagementwiththethreeEastAfricancountries(Kenya,Uganda,andTanzania1),theseteachersrep- resentedaseminalmomentintheexpansionofaninformalAmericanempireinAfrica. Inproviding amoreimperialtheoreticalparadigm,highlightingearlierandmoreinformalinterventionbyTEA and Peace Corps volunteers (PCVs), and addressing their successes and failures, this article demon- strates the complexities created by new transnational connections and interactions between young AmericansandEastAfricanstudents,andtheirimportancespecificallyinTanzania. Italsohighlights Americanengagementwiththerapidlychangingnon-Westernworldduringthecriticalyearsofthe early1960s. Additionally,thisarticlenoteshowthepersonalandeverydayinteractionsofthevolun- teersoftheseorganizationstendedtosubverttheoverallgoalsoftheorganizationsinvolved. Lastly, thearticledelvesintotheconflictsbetweentheBritishandAmericanteachers,theTEAandthePeace Corpsand,finally,theAmericanvolunteersandtheTanzaniangovernment. Consequently,thearti- clewillworktodemonstratethechallengesthatindividualsfacedasAmericaninvolvementevolved overthecourseofthe1960sfromaninformaltoaformalempirewiththearrivalofthePeaceCorps, leadingtoastrongerAmericanpresence, butalsoamorevisceralreactionfromTanzanianleaders andthelocalpopulation. Simply,individualAmericansconflictedwiththeinstitutionalpresenceof colonial-eraeducation,newAmericanprograms,andtheTanzaniangovernmentitself,andthrough thisstruggletheyworkedtoforgeandmaintainconnectionswithlocalTanzanians. PriortothestartofthePeaceCorpsandthegrowthofanofficialAmericanpresence,theinvolve- mentoftheUnitedStatesinAfricaandrelationshipswithAfricancountriescanbecharacterizedas an informal empire of individuals. This American expansionism must also be considered with re- gardtoglobalparadigmsofauthorityandthedeliberateposturingofTanzanianleaderswhosought transnational resources to develop their own nascent but expanding state institutions. The power ofindividualsneedstobestressed,astheypushedAmericanexpansionwithoutacommonagenda, causingchaosandconflictbetweengroups,andwiththeorganizationsthemselvesbeingsubvertedby theirownmembers. Supportinginformationexistslargelyoutsideoftraditionalsourcesandistobe foundinoralhistories,memoirsandprivatepapers,aswellasTanzaniannewspaperlettersandother accounts. Throughanexaminationofthesesources,thisarticlestrivestohighlighttheoftenchaotic natureofAmericaninvolvementintheregion,withtheindividualsinvolveddrivenlessbyColdWar ideologyanditsconnectionswithAfricandecolonizationthanpreviouslythought. Afteranoverview oftheorganizationsinvolved,thepaperfocusesonthemessinessofanempireofindividualsandits ultimatelyunsuccessfulreplacementbyamoreformalizedAmericanpresence. 1 BackgroundandHistoriography Fromthelatenineteenththroughthefirsthalfofthetwentiethcentury,Americanspossessedasmall butvariedpresenceinAfricaneducation,existinglargelyoutsideofficialgovernmentchannels.Schol- arsdebatetheextentanddegreetowhichtheUSwasengagedwithAfricaduringthisperiod, with recent work on this issue showing a greater number and diversity of connections than previously thought. AmericansestablishedandstaffedJeanesSchools,Americanmissionariesworkedthrough- outthecontinent,andAfrican-Americansparticipatedinback-to-Africamovements. GeraldHorne’s MauMauinHarlemhighlightstheseconnectionsanddemonstratesanumberofpreviouslyoverlooked tiesthatexistedbetweentheAfrican-Americancommunity,amongothers,andtheAfricanpopulation inKenya,inadditiontoeducatingfutureWestAfricananti-colonialleaderssuchasNnamdiAzikiwe andKwameNkrumahinthe1930s.2 Whilethenumberoftranscontinentalconnectionsgrewthrough- 1 Forthepurposeofsimplicity,TanzaniawillbeusedinplaceofTanganyika,whichwastheofficialnameofthecountry beforeitsmergerwithZanzibarin1964. 2 GeraldHorne,MauMauinHarlem?: TheU.S.andtheLiberationofKenya. ContemporaryBlackHistory(NewYork: Palgrave, 2009),15.SeealsoPennyM.VonEschen,RaceAgainstEmpire:BlackAmericansandAnticolonialism,1937–1957(Ithaca:Cornell UniversityPress,1997). https://doi.org/10.6092/issn.2611-2752/7293 Art.#7293 p.2 AnEmpireofIndividuals USAbroad.Vol.1(2018) outtheearlytwentiethcentury,especiallyamongtheAfrican-Americancommunityandmissionary societies,theystillremainedquitelimitedandconfinedtosmallsegmentsofthepopulation.3 IncontrasttothelimitedAmericaninvolvementpriortoWorldWarII,thepostwarperiodwit- nessedaslowbutgrowinginterestinthecontinent. PushedbyorganizationssuchastheCouncilon AfricanAffairs,moreAmericansspenttimeinAfrica,becameinterestedinAfricanaffairs,andworked togainknowledgeaboutAfricanpeople. InassessingclaimsofAmericaasanallytothedecoloniz- ingworld, newscholarlyattentionfocusesonAmericaneffortstoreplaceBritishinfluenceandthe complicatingfactorsassociatedwiththiseffort. JohnKentandothersarguethatColdWarconcerns, andaneedtomaintainstrongallianceswithtraditionalimperialpowers,quicklysupersededaltruistic effortstoencouragedecolonization. Americanofficialsnowworkedwiththedepartingcolonialpow- ersthemselves(andnotAfricannationalists)toimplementchange.4 Additionally,theAmericancivil rightsmovementpossessedmultifacetedlinkstotheinternationalanti-colonialmovement,withthe actionsanddiscourseofAfricanleadersprovingcriticalinshapingAfrican-Americanpolitics.5 Still, Africanaffairsremainedmostlyoverlookedasconcernsovercommunismtoppedtheforeignpolicy agendaand,throughthe1950s,USofficialsconcentratedoneventsinEuropeandAsia.BritishForeign OfficeofficialscloselymonitoredAmericaninterestintheregionandtheirreportsclaimedAmericans thoughtofAfrica“asnomorethanalargeareaofsteamingjungleinhabitedbywildanimals,naked savages and pompous officials.”6 While Eisenhower famously went golfing to avoid meeting newly installedAfrican leaders and his foreignpolicy largelyignoredthe Africancontinent, he and other AmericanofficialsrecognizedthatBritishpowerwasonthewaneandatleastsomesortofattention wasneededtostopthespreadofcommunism.7 NewColdWartensionsaswellasspecificevents,such astheperceivedbedlamintheCongofollowingBelgium’squickandchaoticwithdrawal, servedas theimpetusbehindincreasedUSconcern,withthegovernmentbelievingthespreadofcommunism wouldbenefitfromthepotentialchaosinthedecolonizingworld. DespitethehopeofBritishcolo- nialofficialstoremainthedominantpowerinEastAfricaandlimitopportunitiesforAfricanstudents tostudyabroad, theyquicklynotedrisingAmericanconcernovereventsinAfricabybothgovern- ment officials and the general public, starting in the very late 1950s. With a rising global presence, newColdWarconcerns,andincreasedattentionfromthecivilrightsmovement,Americaninterest inAfricagrewbetweentheendofWorldWarIIand1960,butstillremainedlargelyoutsideofficial governmentcircles. Muchofthehistoriographyoverthepasttwentyyearshasfocusedonthetransformativeeventsof the1960sandtherapidexpansionofAmericaninterestinAfrica. Onlyrecentlyhasgreaterattention beenpaidtotheintellectualanddomesticantecedentsoftheseprojects,withnewworkshighlighting theinfluenceoftheGreatDepression. Formanycomingofageinthe1930sandholdingstatepower inthe1950sand1960s,thisdefiningeventshapedviewsofstateinvolvementindirectcorrelationwith theeconomy, includingmodernizationandthestate-centeredapproachofAmericandevelopment policiesfromTruman’sPointFourProgramonward. TheseeffortswereadvocatedbyAmericanin- tellectuals in order to transform backward cultures, push economic modernization, and effectively secureAmericaninterestsabroad.8 Inadditiontofocusingonstatedevelopment,NilsGilmanargues thatAmericanthinkingofnon-Westernpeoplewasbasedon“Americans’understandingoftheirown 3 ApollosOkwuchiNwauwa,Imperialism,AcademeandNationalism: BritainandUniversityEducationforAfricans,1860–1960 (NewYork:Routledge,1997),70. 4 JohnKent,“UnitedStatesReactionstoEmpire,ColonialismandtheColdWarinBlackAfrica,”JournalofImperialand CommonwealthHistory33-2(2005):195–220. 5 SeeKevinKellyGaines,AmericanAfricansinGhana:BlackExpatriatesandtheCivilRightsEra(ChapelHill:UniversityofNorth CarolinaPress,2006)andNikhilPalSingh,BlackisaCountry: RaceandtheUnfinishedStruggleforDemocracy(Cambridge: HarvardUniversityPress,2005). 6 Horne,MauMauinHarlem?,3. 7 BritishNationalArchive,FCO141/7092.“ToSelwynLloyd.”July10,1957,3. 8 SeeMichaelLantham,TheRightKindofRevolution: Modernization,DevelopmentandU.S.ForeignPolicyfromtheColdWarto thePresent(Ithaca:CornellUniversityPress,2011),2;alsoNilsGilman,MandarinsoftheFuture:ModernizationTheoryinCold WarAmerica(Baltimore:JohnsHopkinsUniversityPress,2003). https://doi.org/10.6092/issn.2611-2752/7293 Art.#7293 p.3 AnEmpireofIndividuals USAbroad.Vol.1(2018) identity.”9 Individual Americans also need to be considered more in an informal role and guided lessbyAmericanideology,althoughcertainlypossessingnotionsofsuperiority. Additionally,Larry GrubbsdubsawiderangeofAmericansassecularmissionarieswhowerequicklydisillusionedwhen confrontedwiththeproblemswithinthecontinent; insteadofpromotingacolonial“civilizingmis- sion,”theyworkedtoupliftthecontinentbasedonthein-voguemodernizationtheory.10 However, theirroleneedsexamininginconnectiontoofficialaidorganizationsanddevelopmentalistthinking— althoughteachersstillpossessedgeneralnotionsofsuperiorityandadesiretofreelocalsfrombonds oftradition. Seemingly,thegreatertheinteractionAmericanteachersenjoyedwiththeirlocalcoun- terparts,themorerespecttheydevelopedforlocalcultures,andtheirviewpointsincreasinglydiffered fromColdWarideologically.11 Furthermore,withtheexceptionofGrubbs’sworknotedabove,examinationsofthePeaceCorps arepronetofocusonthePeaceCorpsasaninstitution,itselfrecentlysubjecttoreexamination,and areonlynowanalyzinghowthisorganizationhelpedprojectAmericanpowerthroughouttheworld. GerardRice,authorof TheBoldExperiment: JFK’sPeaceCorps,providesacomprehensiveoverviewof theorganization,itsimportantimpact,anddramaticallyfaststart.12 FritzFischer’sMakingThemLike Us: PeaceCorpsVolunteersinthe1960sdevelopsamorenuancedview,arguingthatalthoughKennedy viewedthePeaceCorpsasacornerstoneofhisColdWarpolicy,itsvolunteersrealizedtheproblems ofdividinguptheworldintotwocamps, promotingalinearsenseofdevelopmentand, aswasthe case in Tanzania, became critical of American foreign policy itself.13 However, the Peace Corps, as representativeofAmericanexpansionintoAfrica,needsexaminingbeyondsimplyviewingitasful- fillingtheroleofadomesticinstitutionservingtheneedsofAmericanpoliticians,andmustbeput intothelargercontextofAmericanexpansionism,Britishdecolonization,theColdWar,andAfrican state-building. Connecting agendasbetweendifferentactors with regardto decolonization in Africa, Frederick Cooperarguesthat“themodernizationdiscourseofthebureaucrats”wasasharedagendabetween the departing colonial state and newly empowered nationalists throughout the British and French colonies,andtheideaofthestateservingasthedrivingforceofpostcolonialdevelopmentcontinued.14 Cooperwritesthatindependencebroughtmorethaneducation—accesstohealthcareincreased(in- fantmortalitydeclined; lifeexpectancyrose),theeconomiesgrew,and,throughthegrowthofnew institutions, governments delivered “at last something to their citizens—education, health services, roads.”15 Additionally,PriyaLalarguesthatstate-buildingandideologicaldevelopmentwerefirmly connectedtoThirdWorldnetworksandthoughtofasanalternativetoWesternmodernizationthe- ory;Tanzaniannation-buildingingeneralneedstobeconsideredwithregardtoglobaldecolonization andtheThirdWorldnations.16 Addingtothispoint,JohnKellyandMarthaKaplansuggestthatfor thecolonized:“Decolonizationwasnotsomuchanexitbutinsteadanentryintoaglobalpoliticalsce- nario….”17 Despitelatereschewingforeigninfluence,Nyererepositionedhiscountryattheforefront 9 Gilman,12. 10 LarryGrubbs,SecularMissionaries: AmericansandAfricanDevelopmentinthe1960s(Amherst: UniversityofMassachusetts Press,2010). 11 JonathanZimmermangoesasfarascallingAmericanteachers“innocentsabroad”inZimmerman,InnocentsAbroad:Amer- icanTeachersintheAmericanCentury(Cambridge:HarvardUniversityPress,2009),17. 12 GerardT.Rice,TheBoldExperiment: JFK’sPeaceCorps(NotreDame: UniversityofNotreDamePress,1985); Elizabeth CobbsHoffman,AllYouNeedisLove:ThePeaceCorpsandtheSpiritofthe1960s(Cambridge:HarvardUniversityPress,1998); JonathanZimmerman,“BeyondDoubleConsciousness:BlackPeaceCorpsVolunteersinAfrica,1961-1971,”JournalofAmer- icanHistory82,(1995):999–1028. 13 FritzFischer,MakingThemLikeUs:PeaceCorpsVolunteersinthe1960s(Washington:SmithsonianInstitutionPress,1998). 14 FrederickCooper,“ModernizingBureaucrats,BackwardAfricansandtheDevelopmentConcept,”inFrederickCooperand RandallM.Packard,InternationalDevelopmentandtheSocialSciences: EssaysontheHistoryofPoliticsofKnowledge(Berkeley: UniversityofCaliforniaPress,1997),64–92. 15 FrederickCooper,AfricaandtheWorld(Cambridge:HarvardUniversityPress,2014),97. 16 PriyaLal,AfricanSocialisminPostcolonialTanzania:BetweentheVillageandtheWorld(NewYork:CambridgeUniversityPress, 2015),16–17. 17 JohnKellyandMarthaKaplan,RepresentedCommunities:FijiandWorldDecolonization(Chicago:UniversityofChicagoPress, https://doi.org/10.6092/issn.2611-2752/7293 Art.#7293 p.4 AnEmpireofIndividuals USAbroad.Vol.1(2018) ofAfricanaffairs,theBritishCommonwealthand,followingtheZanzibarirevolution,theColdWar, prompting State Department official Francis Terry McNamera to succinctly note: “Dar [es Salaam, Tanzania’scapital]wastheliberationcapitalofAfrica….”18 Thus,byleveragingitslocationandactivist foreignpolicy,TanzaniaforgedauniqueplaceintheColdWartowhichothercountries,especially theUnitedStatesandSovietUnion,neededtorespondwithoffersofscholarshipstoTanzanianstu- dents,directforeignaidforschool-andinfrastructure-building,localadvisors,andteachers—allof whichhelpeddevelopTanzanianstateinstitutions. AsAmericaninterestinAfricaslowlyincreased,educationthroughoutEastAfrica,especiallyTan- zania,wasexperiencingarevolutionasthedecolonizationprocesscommenced. Althoughmostlya reward for the political and economic colonial elite, colonized people used education as a method ofself-advancement,ameanstocounterBritishperceptionsoftheirethnicgrouporreligion,anda methodofjustifyinggreaterpoliticalparticipation,whichpromptedmanytoactivelycampaignfor newmissionaryorgovernmentschools. Thelatecolonialperiodwitnessedahugeexpansioninthe demandforeducationand,withcolonialofficialsleaving,theneedforatrainedworkforce. Withless thanahundredcollegegraduates,Tanzania’sneedwasespeciallyacuteandnowherecouldexisting Africaninstitutionsmatchthedemandforadvanceddegrees. Secondaryschoolstudents,bothmale andfemale,realizedthenewopportunityforadvancementandworkedtoobtainaccesstouniversities sotheycouldbecometechnocraticandbureaucraticleaders,andmembersofthenewgovernment elite.19 Todealwiththisdemand,thelatecolonialstateanditspostcolonialsuccessordrasticallyin- creasedenrollmentcapacitieswithintheschoolsystemsthroughoutthecontinent,withTanzaniaat the forefront in primary school expansion. Compared with fewer than ten thousand mostly male Africanstudentsduringthelatecolonialperiod,governmentfiguresshowthat486,470studentswere enrolledinschoolsin1961,risingto537,725studentsthefollowingyear.By1966schoolstaught774,604 students,andthatroseto829,182in1967.20 Asoutsideobserversquicklynoted,however,theschool systemdidnothavethenecessarytrainedteacherstomatchthisgrowth,whichhamperedtheover- all functioning of the schools and slowed expansion efforts. Overall, access to education remained an ongoing battle and the demand for education constantly exceeded the available space, forcing EastAfricangovernmentstosearchforpossiblesolutions. Thus,thisimportantnation-buildingen- deavorcontainedimportanttransnationalconnectionsandcomponentsandneedstobeconsidered inaglobalcontext. 2 IncomingAmericansandBritishConflictsinTanzania Recognizingmanyoftheissuesthatdecolonizingcountriesfaced,Americanscholars,celebrities,and journalists—amongothers—workedtoprovidenewformsofassistancetoAfricancountries. Aspart ofthesenewefforts,ProfessorKennethBigelowandR.FreemanButts,bothassociatedwithTeachers CollegeofColumbiaUniversityandwithfundingfromtheCarnegieCorporation,hostedameeting inDecember1960withthegovernmentsoftheUnitedStatesandUnitedKingdom,alongwithrepre- sentativesfromtheBritishEastAfricanterritories.21 RespondingtourgentrequestsfromEastAfrican officialsforteachers,thepairestablishedaneworganization,TeachersforEastAfrica,whosemission wastohelpstaffandconsequentlyexpandtheeducationsystemsinEastAfrica,hopingtoincreasethe 2001),5. 18 FrancisTerryMcNamerainterviewedbyCharlesStuartKennedy,March18,1993,AssociationforDiplomaticStudiesand TrainingForeignAffairsOralHistoryProjectArchive,LibraryofCongress. 19 AndrewIvaska,CulturedStates:Youth,GenderandModernStylein1960sDaresSalaam(Durham:DukeUniversityPress,2011). 20 StatisticsdifferbetweenLeneBuchert’sEducationintheDevelopmentofTanzania,1919-90(Athens: OhioUniversityPress, 1994),110,and“TwentyYearsofTANUEducation”inTowardsUjamaa:TwentyYearsofTANULeadership,GabrielRuhumbika (ed.),(DaresSalaam:EastAfricanLiteratureBureau,1977),227. 21 P.C.C.Evans,“AmericanTeachersforEastAfrica,”SymposiumonEducationinAfrica,ComparativeEducationReview,June 1962,69–77. https://doi.org/10.6092/issn.2611-2752/7293 Art.#7293 p.5 AnEmpireofIndividuals USAbroad.Vol.1(2018) stabilityandoveralldevelopmentofthecountries.22 Byprovidingteachers,theTEAhopedtofoster cooperationbetweentheUnitedStatesandUnitedKingdomaidagencies,thethreeEastAfricangov- ernments,andvariousuniversitiesintheUnitedStates.Withfinancialandlogisticalsupportfromthe USgovernment,theprogramreflectedbroaderAmericangoalsofrapidlyimprovingtheeducational situation in the region at all levels, in addition to undertaking larger infrastructure projects. Thus, the newly established TEA worked to address school-related problems and became one of the first large-scaleAmericanorganizationsinEastAfrica,demonstratingthequickresponseofdetermined collectivized interests. Despite the stated cooperation, the organization became symbolic of a new AmericandominanceandprovidedAmericanentryintotheregion. Torecruitteachers,theorganizationvisiteduniversitiesthroughouttheUnitedStates,mailedover 12,000letters,andutilizedtheresourcesoftheNationalEducationAssociationtoincreaseawareness oftheTEAprogram. Demonstratinganewinteresttowardsoverseasengagementandvolunteering, thousandsofcollegestudentsandrecentgraduatesappliedforteachingpositions,whichallowedthe organizationtobehighlyselective—onlyapproving150teacherswithmaster’sdegrees.23 Inprovid- inganoverviewoftheTEA’srecruitmenteffortstotheNewYorkTimes,Buttsstatedthattheteachers “must be professionally first rate … they must be personally resourceful and imaginative … with no trace of paternalism, they must be able to cooperate with Africa in educating itself … they must be animatedbyaspiritofservice.”24 Thus, theorganizationworkedtodistanceitself, althoughsome- timesunsuccessfully,fromcolonial-eraentities,thusattackingtheirBritishpartners,andshownew enthusiasm while reproducing some imperial attitudes of service. What Butts was arguing for was moreofanalternative,humanisticapproachtomodernizationthatwouldnotrelypredominatelyon infrastructural-basedprojectsand,asmentionedinthequote,helpingAfricatohelpitself,implying somedegreeofequality. While the organization strove to include British teachers, work with the British government to becomeajointAnglo-Americanventuresuffered. Afteronlyayearofexistence,thegrowingfeeling of disappointment changed to a sense of failure within the British government, as Overseas Devel- opment Ministry [ODM] officials reported little success in attracting teachers to the TEA program. British students had long enjoyed opportunities to serve the empire and teach overseas, unlike in America,wherethiswasanewopportunity,andconsequentlyBritishstudentsremainedlessenthusi- astic.Inonecallforapplications,H.HolmesattheODMhighlightedthisproblem,writing:“Although therewereabout60firstenquiries,only10applicationformswerereturned”;ofthetenreceived,none oftheapplicantspassedtheinitialrecruitmentstage.25 Recruitmentofficialsblamedtheunfavorable pressthatwaslinkedtolargerdebatesoverthefutureoftheBritishEmpireandpittedtheTanzanian governmentagainsttheBritishoverSouthAfricaandtheofficialseveringofrelationswithSouthern Rhodesia. Consequently,bythemid-1960s,theBritishODMwasnolongerencouragingBritishvol- unteerstogotoTanzania,afteraneducationalengagementofoverfiftyyears.26 ThegeneralBritish attitudethattheirpowerwaswaningandtheyweremovingawayfromimperialrule,especiallythe controversiesassociatedwithdecolonization,contrastedwiththeexcitementofyoungAmericansin developingamoreinformalrelationshipwiththeregion. Theprogram’sfailuresdemonstratedthe limitedsupportforimperialprojectsinBritain,especiallyincontrasttotheAmericanenthusiasmfor volunteeringforanexoticadventureuntaintedbytheirownimperialism. Overitsten-yearexistence,theTEAsupplied631educatorsforteachingandteachertrainingin EastAfricaandbecameaconduitforinformationbetweentheregionandtheAmericanpublic.27 The volunteerteachersestablishedimportant,albeitinformal,linksthroughouttheregion,interactedwith peopleatalocallevel,andprovidedthemeanswherebytheeducationsystemscouldsuccessfullyteach 22 R.FreemanButts,“ASecondProgramofTeachersforEastAfrica,”February1,1962,Teacher’sCollegeArchive[TCA], ColumbiaUniversity,ButtsCorrespondenceFile,33. 23 Butts,“TeachersforEastAfrica,”33. 24 Butts,“TeachersSoughtinAfricaProject,”NewYorkTimes,February5,1961. 25 SeeB.N.A[BritishNationalArchive],“Applicants,”ODM17/86. 26 B.N.A,ODM17/86. 27 Butts,“TeachersforEastAfrica,”34. https://doi.org/10.6092/issn.2611-2752/7293 Art.#7293 p.6 AnEmpireofIndividuals USAbroad.Vol.1(2018) recordnumbersofstudents. Increasinglycognizantofeventsintheworldandhavingagreaterinter- estinAfricathanpreviousgenerations,applicantspossessedastrongdesiretoseeforeignlandsand wantedtodiscoverthemselvesaswellashelpothers.28 Despitetheslightdifferenceinagesbetween TEAteachers(bornin1940atthelatest)andPeaceCorpsvolunteers(bornonly4–6yearslater),the parentsof TEA workersweremorea productof the GreatDepression, not as likelyto havefought in WWII and raised in a period of American isolationism. The TEA also possessed a different atti- tudetowardswork, astheydidnotwanttofollowtheirparentsintospecificdesk-basedcareersfor the rest of their lives. Unlike the PCVs later in the decade, however, they were raised hearing tales ofAmerica’sinformalinterventioninLatinAmerica, ratherthantheconflictinVietnam, andwere largelyunconnectedtothecivilrightsmovementthatwoulddefinethelater1960s.Slightlyolderthan PCVs,TEAparticipantsweremorelikelytobemarriedandhavechildrenthanthenextgeneration of volunteers and, as a requirement of the program, possessed a teaching degree. Finally, reminis- cent of nineteenth-century British humanitarian predecessors, the desireto help the downtrodden throughout the world influenced the motivations of those going overseas. While possessing an al- mostblindfaithinthevalueofeducationanditspotentialforindividualandsocietaluplift,neither groupofyoungvolunteerswasparticularlyeducatedinordedicatedtothemodernizationideology promotedbydevelopmentalistplanners. Thus,withlittleexperiencetodrawon,volunteersviewed theirupcomingexperienceasthemostexoticadventureAmericanscouldpartakeinatthetimeand anescapefromtheboredomofmiddle-classlives. Theyheldadesiretoforgeconnectionswithunfa- miliarpeoplesratherthanimposeaspecificideology(alargerconcernafterthestartoftheVietnam War)onnon-Westernpeople. Specifically in Tanzania, the TEA trained, transported, and placed over 300 American teachers in schools during the early 1960s. As a nascent organization and after only a few brief trips by its leadershiptotheregion,theorganizationneededtoestablishanentireinfrastructuretoplace,supply, and oversee the teachers. Consequently, a degree of chaos plagued the early efforts of the organi- zation and it took a concerted effort by the incoming teachers to address these issues. Sometimes schoolswereunpreparedfortheteachers’arrivalordidnotknowtheywerecomingatall. However, thevastmajorityofissuescenteredonsuppliesandsuitcasesnotarrivinginatimelymanner,leading theteacherstoimproviseandgowithoutfortwoorthreeweeksuntiltheircarefullypackedsuitcases arrived. Americanresearchershavenotedthatthefirstwaveofteacherswas“probablyunconcerned aboutanumberoffacetsoflifetheywereentering,includingsuchpotentiallyimportantissuessuch asisolation,workingunderasystemusingteachingmethodsquitedifferentfromthosetowhichthey havebeenaccustomed, lonelinessandcostofliving.”29 Lastly, therewereexpectationsofgratitude that did not materialize. Teachers thought that their students would be more appreciative of their volunteerefforts,theirsmallgifts,andtheirorganizationofmanylocaltrips,butmanystudentsbe- lievedtheseeffortswerewhattherichAmericansdidbackhomeandthattheydidnotentailmuch extra effort. Since most of these issues were not covered during orientation, they often caught the newlyarrivingvolunteersbysurpriseandcomplicatedanalreadydifficultadjustmentprocess. Fur- thermore,whenexaminingAmericanteachersabroadandoutsideofelitelevels,theinteractionsand actions of Americans highlight an optimism powered more by a faith in education for uplift than supportformodernizationtheory,andmoreforinternationaladventurethanglobalpowerstruggles. Despite the problems noted above, the TEA helped the Ministry of Education move closer to meetingtheambitiousgoalsestablishedbytheirfirstfive-yearplanforeducationreleasedin1963,in whicheducationexpertsestimatedashortfallof541teachersin1964,andgreatlyincreasedthescope oftheeducationsystem.30 Inpart,thepoliticallegitimacyofTanzania’sleader,JuliusNyerere,andhis TANUpartywasbasedonmeetingthesedemands. TeachersarrivingthroughtheTEAfilledcritical positionsthattheMinistrycouldnotfillitself.By1964,Tanzaniapossessed143suchteachers(roughly one-third of the total teachers) and, although relatively small in number, they were critical for the 28 “ApplicationEssay,”December7,1960,TCA,ApplicationFile,9. 29 RaymondL.Gold,ATeachingSafari:AStudyofAmericanTeachersinEastAfrica(Baltimore:PublishAmerica,2004),131. 30 Butts,“TeachersforEastAfrica,”33. https://doi.org/10.6092/issn.2611-2752/7293 Art.#7293 p.7 AnEmpireofIndividuals USAbroad.Vol.1(2018) expandingschoolsystem.31 TheseteachersallowedprogramdirectorButtstostate“forthefirsttime withinmemory,theschoolsarereasonablywellstaffed”andthepresenceofTEAteacherspermitted “thedevelopmentplanfortheexpansionofsecondaryeducation.”32 However,theTEA’simmediate impactwaslimited. AlthoughtheysuccessfullyprovidedteacherstoreplacedepartingBritishones, thisalsocreatedanopportunityforAfricanteacherstoreceiveadditionaltrainingorjointheMinistry of Education, thus removing themselves from active teaching duties. While an important step in Africanizingthebureaucracy,suchactionsnotonlyfailedtosolvetheteachershortageandincreased relianceonoutsiderteachers,buttheyalsodemonstratedtheimportanceoftransnationalresources indevelopinglocalinstitutions. IssuesbegantosurfacebetweentheBritishandAmericanpartnership,whichwascompoundedby agenerationalgap,widelydifferentattitudes,andlimitedcooperationbetweengroupsofteachers.De- spitetheirofficialsupport,BritishofficialsbothinLondonandthroughoutEastAfricaexpressedtheir dislikeoftheprogram,althoughtheyappreciateditsusefulness. First,theindependenceofUganda andTanzanianowmadeitimpossibletouseColonialDevelopmentandWelfareFunds.ODMofficials assumedtheEastAfricangovernmentswouldpayforhalfoftheadditionaltrainingoftheirteachers, butafterencounteringprotestsfromEastAfricangovernments,theyreluctantlyagreedtocoverall theexpenses.33 Additionally,ODMofficials,suchasBernardAshleyandGeorgeDickson,viewedthe TEA program as an attempt by the Americans to “force an entry into the field of teacher training,” whichtheyallegedlywantedtoAmericanize,thuschangingBritain’scarefullycraftedlegacyofimpe- rialrule.WithAmericanteachersandfundingplayinganincreasinglyprominentroleintheprogram, ColonialandForeignOfficeofficialsbegantofeelmarginalizedandwonderedabouttheirfuturein thefieldofEastAfricaneducation. Bydevelopingapresenceinanewregionoutsideofformalgov- ernmentsupport,theTEAforgednewconnectionstotheregionandincreasedAmericanknowledge aboutEastAfricanlifeattheexpenseofthelong-standingBritishpresence. Despitepledgesofco- operation,theAnglo-Americanventureshowedthepracticallimitationsofsuchefforts,especiallyas disputesbeganoccurringbetweenindividualteachers. InadditiontoofficialsinLondon,BritishteachersandotherofficialsonthegroundinTanzania complained about the attitudes of the arriving volunteers, while remaining aware that they repre- sented the arrival of a new imperial presence. With their long-standing ties to the Empire, these teachersandofficialswroteaboutthe“itisourturnnow”approachoftheAmericansandarguedthe newteachersfailedtorecognizethecontributionsoftheirBritishcolleagues. Inresearchingtheorga- nization,RaymondGoldfoundinstancesofBritishheadmasters,accustomedtolivinginEastAfrica andalreadyinsecureabouttheirpositions,protestingthatAmericanswere“inclinedtogrumbleabout theirextendedworkobligationsandgenerallywereoverlyconcernedabouttheirhealth,”tothede- greethatmanyheadmasterslabeledthemhypochondriacs.Manyofficialsusedthiscommonattackto discredittheAmericanvolunteersandreinforcethedividebetweenAmericanandBritisheducators.34 HeadmastersalsocomplainedaboutthelongholidaystheirAmericanteacherstook.Americansinter- pretedtheterm“schoolholiday”liberallyandvieweditasavacation,notrealizingthatmanystudents stayedatschoolandsupervisionwasneeded.AmericansunderstoodtheywouldonlybeinAfricafora shorttimeandwantedtotourasmuchaspossible. Thesecriticismswerenotunwarranted,asthema- jorityofteachersviewedtravelasanessentialcomponentoftheirtimeinEastAfrica. Inoneinstance, GaryGappertandafellowteacherplannedtodrive3,500milesfromTaboratoCapeTown,conse- quentlyearningthescornofthe“oldtimers”andarrivinglateforthestartoftheschoolterm.35 The allegedholiday-firstattitudeoftheteachersreinforcednegativeBritishattitudestowardsthenewly arrivedAmericanteachers,criticismbasedonrealproblems,butalsothedesireofBritishofficialsto condemntheAmericans’actionsinanattemptatself-preservation. In contrast, the American teachers noticed the “aloofness, attitude, the formality of the older 31 Zanzibarisnotincludedinthiscalculation. 32 Butts,“TeachersforEastAfrica,”33. 33 SeeB.N.A.,FO924/1473. 34 Gold,ATeachingSafari,214. 35 GaryGappert“LetterHome,”TCA,TEAPersonnelCommunicationsFile,79. https://doi.org/10.6092/issn.2611-2752/7293 Art.#7293 p.8 AnEmpireofIndividuals USAbroad.Vol.1(2018) British type teacher.”36 Arriving teachers perceived a sense of fatigue among British teachers com- paredtotheAmericanexcitementandfeltthatmanyoftheBritishteachersweresimplywaitingto returnhome. Finally,thearrivalofAfrican-Americanteachersaddedadegreeofracialmixingand blurred the carefully maintained hierarchies the British had established. While still rare, African- Americanteacherspermeatedwhite-onlyclubs,arguablythelastbastionofEuropeans,andhelped forcetheraciallysegregatedcolonialsocietytochange.Thus,inoppositiontothelastingBritishinflu- ence,whereracialattitudesexisted,theAmericanpresencewaswelcomedbytheTanzanianpopula- tionasaviablepostcolonialalternativetoBritishteachersandbylocalpoliticianseagertodemonstrate changesbroughtbyindependence. Changeswerealsotakingplaceintheclassroom, asTEAteachersquicklybeganinstructingstu- dents,oftenwithoutlessonplansandwithminimalguidance. Thenewlyarrivingteachersnotedthat fewteachingsuppliesexistedfortheirlessons.37AsJimBlairremembers,withregardtoteaching,“Ijust didit.IfoundthatIhadunrealizedtalent.Icouldteach.OnceIrealizedthatIcouldaccomplishwhat- everIputmymindto,Ineverlookedback.”38 Spurredbytheirinformality,TEAteachersquestioned existingpractices,includingtheneedforCambridgeexams,muchtothedismayofboththeBritish andthoseneedingtotaketheexamsinordertoadvanceinschooling.Otherminorissuesturnedinto largerdisputes,asAmericansalsoquestionedthelecture-basedsystemofmemorizingfactspracticed bytheBritish,whichturnedouttobeamajorlegacyofempire.39 Asaresult,thestudentsthemselves initially questioned the effectiveness of American teachers, with Gus Lewis recalling that students asked: “WhatdidtheseteachersknowaboutBritishexamstakenbyAfricanboys?”40 Overthefirst yearofteaching,manyoftheseunexpectedissuesworkedthemselvesoutandtheorganizationflour- ished,leadingthethreeEastAfricancountries,especiallyTanzania,torequestmoreTEAteachersand showcasetheirexpandingeducationalsystems,replacemorecolonial-eraeducators,andrespondto localdemands. Perhapstheareaofgreatestinfluencetheteachersenjoyedcamefrominformalinteractionsout- sidetheclassroom. Forexample,thenewteacherswentonhikes,organizedvisitstolocalplacesof interest, and, aspartoftheirloveofsightseeing, encouragedlearningoutsidetheclassroom. Addi- tionally,sportsexistedasamajordrawatthelocalfestivalsandprovidedanopportunitytoincrease studentparticipationandexcitement. ThefledglingTanzanianstatestruggledforaudiencesatnewly createdstatecelebrationsandstudentsprovidedacaptiveaudienceandservedasathleticcontestants. Throughorganizingandparticipatingintheseevents,peoplewouldbemoreinclinedtoembracethe newnationalholidays,andgovernmentofficialscouldfurtherdevelopnation-buildingactivitiesand strengthennationalunity. MosesHoward,anAfrican-AmericanTEAvolunteer,remembersthisin- formalinteractionasaninfluencingfactorindating,whichwasgoingthroughrenegotiation,asthe youngstudentsestablishedtheirownrelationshipsandneededguidanceonhowtodealwiththese new issues.41 He recalls: “My students often came to tea at my house. They asked me to explain lessons,buttheyweremoreinterestedinpersonalrelationships.”Whatisthisdating?”“Domostboys havecarstodrivearoundwithgirlsasweseeinthemovies?…Theywerealwaysrespectfulandseemed convincedtheycouldaskmeanything….”42 Thus,theinformalityofAmericanteachersencouraged by the TEA program promoted a different degree of bonding and, for the rare African-American 36 R.FreemanButts,“FirstImpressionofTeachersforEastAfricainAction,”TCA,ButtsCorrespondenceFile,11. 37 Pat Gill, “My English Challenge,” teaaki (blog), November 20, 2013, http://teaaki.pbworks.com/w/page/70973781/My% 20English%20Challenge%20-%20Pat%20Gill. 38 Jim Blair, “TEA Reflections,” teaaki (blog), August 21, 2013, http://teaaki.pbworks.com/w/page/44447933/TEA% 20Reflections%20-%20Jim%20Blair. 39 JoelReuben,“TheNewPrimaryApproach,”teaaki(blog),August25,2015,http://teaaki.pbworks.com/w/page/99582131/ The%20New%20Primary%20Approach%20-%20Joel%20Reuben. 40 GusLewis,“Strike! toStudy,”teaaki(blog),November27,2011,http://teaaki.pbworks.com/w/page/48393046/Strike%21% 20to%20Study%20-%20Gus%20Lewis. 41 LynnThomas,“SchoolgirlPregnancies,Letter-writingandModernPersonsinLateColonialEastAfrica,”inAfrica’sHidden Histories:EverydayLiteracyandtheMakingoftheSelf (Bloomington:IndianaUniversityPress,2006):180–207. 42 MosesHoward,“MyAfricanStudents,”teaaki(blog),January30,2017,http://teaaki.pbworks.com/w/page/114936556/My% 20African%20Students%20-%20Moses%20Howard. https://doi.org/10.6092/issn.2611-2752/7293 Art.#7293 p.9 AnEmpireofIndividuals USAbroad.Vol.1(2018) teacher,reinforcedthisbondingbycommonalitiesofrace.43 Thecloseconnectionshelpedstudents navigatethenewworldofthe1960swhilelearningaboutAmericaoutsidetheclassroom. Theseun- plannedinteractionsandnewbondscontinuedlongafterthevolunteersdepartedbacktoAmerica andremainedusefulforTanzanianswantingtoattenduniversityinAmerica. Overall,theindividual connectionsworkedtoaugmentmanyoftheeffortsoftheTEAprogramandprovideanalternativeto colonialteachingmethods. Thesespontaneousinteractions,basedmoreonintimacythanideology, werenotacomponentofmodernizationplanning;replacingBritishteachersatthelocallevelbecame moreimportantthanglobalAnglo-AmericancooperationorColdWarcompetition. 3 PeaceCorpsVolunteersandNewConflicts InadditiontotheclashesoccurringbetweenAmericansanddepartingBritishofficials,anewconflict emergedastheAmericanpresencetransitionedfromaninformaltoformalpresencewiththearrival of PCVs to replace TEA teachers. Presidential candidate John F. Kennedy argued for an increased American presence in the region and the vital importance of the decolonizing world to America’s strategic vision. At the same time, Kennedy combined his domestic and international agendas by encouragingAmericanstudentstohelpdevelop(againreflectingcolonialundertones)newlydecolo- nizedcountries. InabriefspeechwhilecampaigningattheUniversityofMichigan,Kennedyasked: “Howmanyofyouwhoaregoingtobedoctors, arewillingtospendyourdaysinGhana?”44 Thus, KennedywasabletocreateasenseofmoralobligationandhereshapedAmericaninteractionswith the developing world by introducing a more formal state program, utilizing volunteers who were nowpartoftheUSgovernment. OnMarch1,1961,thisrelationshipwassolidifiedasnowPresident Kennedy signed an order establishing the Peace Corps, revolutionizing the method by which peo- ple could volunteer for government service and signifying a more formal American presence that wasconnectedtoofficial,anti-communistaidprograms. WiththebirthofthePeaceCorps,however, Americanaidprogramsthatpossesseddifferentoverallgoalswereoftencompetingagainsteachother; someelements, suchasthePeaceCorpsitself, werelessideologicallyfocusedthanotherAmerican aid-grantingorganizations.45 Kennedy’s new engagement was a crucial response to Nyerere’s aggressive foreign policies and desiretopositionTanzaniaasacountrythatwoulddominateregionalpolitics. Despitelateragitating forself-sufficiency,Nyererequicklyrealizedthebenefitsforbotheducatorsingeneralandasreplace- mentsfortheBritish. AsanearlyproponentforPCVs,Nyerereactivelysoughtinternationalaidto build,staff,andfundschools,aswellastheinfrastructuremorebroadly,andworkedtoplaydifferent ColdWarpowersagainsteachother. Nyererealsoactivelyhelpedoutsideliberationgroups, which onlyincreasedAmericaninterestinthe country. Theresultwasanewlyformedgovernmentposi- tionedtoclaimadditionaltransnationalresourcesandusethemforstate-buildingpurposes. Conse- quently,KennedyandofficialsintheStateDepartmentfeltitnecessarytoquicklyinvolveAmericans inTanzanianaffairs. New American engagement in the guise of PCVs created the problem of having two American organizations devoted to teaching on the ground in the region and highlights the second conflict complicating American foreign policy. For a brief moment, the organizations were more focused oncompetingwithanddiscreditingeachother,andprovingtheirownworthratherthanwithglobal orideologicalconcerns.DespiteeffortsbytheleadershipofthePeaceCorpsandTEAtolimitfraternal arguments,recognizingthatbothwereatleastpartiallyfundedbytheAmericangovernment,tempers flaredonseveraloccasions,especiallyasTEAteachersrealizedtheywereslowlybeingphasedout. In onecase,ProfessorofEducationMargaretLindseystatedherpro-TEAbias,“infavorofteacherswho hadacareercommitmenttoteachingandwhohadreceivedextendedandspecializedprofessional 43 Ibid. 44 JohnF.Kennedy,“October14,1960SpeechtoMichiganUniversityStudents,”TheFoundingMomentinAbouthttps:// www.peacecorps.gov/about/history/founding-moment/. 45 Lantham,141. LathamarguesthePeaceCorpsinLatinAmericaprovidedtheliteracyskillsformoreradicalpolitical advocacy. https://doi.org/10.6092/issn.2611-2752/7293 Art.#7293 p.10
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