Emerging Zoonoses: A Worldwide Perspective

255 Pages·2017·3.62 MB·English

by  I. W. Fong (auth.)

Emerging Infectious Diseases of the 21st Century
I. W. Fong
Emerging
Zoonoses
A Worldwide Perspective
Emerging Infectious Diseases
of the 21st Century
Series Editor: I.W. Fong
Professor of Medicine, University of Toronto
Head of Infectious Diseases, St. Michael’s Hospital
More information about this series at http://www.springer.com/series/5903
I.W. Fong
Emerging Zoonoses
A Worldwide Perspective
I.W. Fong
University of Toronto
Toronto, ON, Canada
Emerging Infectious Diseases of the 21st Century
ISBN 978-3-319-50888-7 ISBN 978-3-319-50890-0 (eBook)
DOI 10.1007/978-3-319-50890-0
Library of Congress Control Number: 2016960709
© Springer International Publishing AG 2017
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Contents
1 Pandemic Zoonoses from the Middle Ages
to the Twentieth Century ........................................................................ 1
1.1 Historical Aspects ............................................................................ 1
1.2 Plague Pandemics ............................................................................ 2
1.2.1 History Revisited ................................................................. 2
1.2.2 Current Epidemiology .......................................................... 3
1.2.3 Microbiological and Clinical Aspects of Plague .................. 3
1.3 Pandemic Zoonotic Influenza .......................................................... 4
1.3.1 Unique Features of the 1918 Pandemic ............................... 5
1.3.2 Other Pandemics of the Twentieth Century ......................... 6
1.4 The AIDS/HIV Pandemic ................................................................ 7
1.4.1 Progress in AIDS ................................................................. 9
1.4.2 Present State and Remaining Challenges ............................. 9
1.4.3 Prospects of Meeting the Challenges ................................... 10
References ................................................................................................. 12
2 Animals and Mechanisms of Disease Transmission ............................. 15
2.1 Introduction ...................................................................................... 15
2.2 Various Means of Transmission ....................................................... 16
2.2.1 Socioecology Factors ........................................................... 16
2.2.2 Mechanisms of Transmission............................................... 16
2.3 Animal Disease via the Food Chain ................................................. 17
2.3.1 Bacterial Foodborne Zoonoses ............................................ 18
2.3.2 Foodborne Parasitic Zoonoses ............................................. 21
2.4 Pets as a Source of Zoonoses ........................................................... 24
2.4.1 Vector-Borne Zoonoses from Pets ....................................... 26
2.4.2 Parasitic Zoonoses from Pets ............................................... 27
2.5 Birds and Bats in Zoonoses .............................................................. 28
2.5.1 Pet Birds ............................................................................... 29
2.5.2 Bats ...................................................................................... 30
v
vi Contents
2.6 Animals in the Wild ....................................................................... 31
References ................................................................................................. 35
3 Swine and Avian Influenza Outbreaks in Recent Times ..................... 39
3.1 Introduction .................................................................................... 39
3.2 Virology ......................................................................................... 39
3.3 Ecology and Host Tropism............................................................. 40
3.4 Swine Influenza Viruses of the Twenty-First Century ................... 42
3.4.1 Cross-Species Transmission and Mixing Vessel
Concept .............................................................................. 42
3.4.2 Reassortment of Influenza Viruses in Pigs ......................... 43
3.4.3 Transmission of Swine Reassortment Viruses
to Humans .......................................................................... 44
3.5 Avian Influenza in the Modern Era ................................................ 45
3.5.1 Tissue Tropism ................................................................... 46
3.5.2 Highly Pathogenic Avian Influenza H5N1 ......................... 47
3.5.3 Emergence of Avian Influenza A H7N9 ............................. 48
3.5.4 Current Status of the Emerging Pathogenic
Avian Influenza Viruses ...................................................... 49
3.6 Strategies to Contain Zoonotic Influenza A ................................... 51
3.6.1 Vaccines for Zoonotic Influenza A ..................................... 52
3.6.2 Treatment of Zoonotic Influenza ........................................ 53
3.7 Future Directions ........................................................................... 54
3.8 Conclusion ..................................................................................... 56
References ................................................................................................. 56
4 Emerging Animal Coronaviruses: First SARS and now MERS ......... 63
4.1 Introduction .................................................................................... 63
4.2 Virology ......................................................................................... 64
4.3 Pathogenesis ................................................................................... 64
4.4 Transmission .................................................................................. 66
4.5 Clinical Features ............................................................................ 68
4.6 Diagnosis. ....................................................................................... 69
4.7 Pathology and Immunology ........................................................... 70
4.8 Management ................................................................................... 71
4.8.1 Animal Experiments........................................................... 72
4.9 Experimental Antivirals and Vaccines............................................ 73
4.9.1 Future Directions ................................................................ 74
4.9.2 Conclusion.......................................................................... 76
References ................................................................................................. 76
5 Emergence of New Tickborne Infections .............................................. 81
5.1 Introduction .................................................................................... 81
5.2 Ticks ............................................................................................... 82
5.3 Historical Aspects .......................................................................... 83
5.3.1 Tickborne Zoonoses: General Background ........................ 84
Contents vii
5.4 New Tickborne Bunyaviruses .......................................................... 85
5.4.1 Severe Fever with Thrombocytopenia
Syndrome [SFTS] ................................................................ 86
5.4.2 Heartland Virus .................................................................... 92
5.4.3 Clinical Features of Heartland Virus Infection .................... 92
5.4.4 Borrelia miyamotoi Disease ................................................. 93
5.5 Conclusion and Future Perspectives ................................................ 94
References ................................................................................................. 96
6 Chikungunya Virus and Zika Virus Expansion:
An Imitation of Dengue Virus ................................................................ 101
6.1 Introduction ...................................................................................... 101
6.2 Historical Aspects ............................................................................ 102
6.2.1 CHIKV ................................................................................. 102
6.2.2 DENV .................................................................................. 103
6.2.3 Zika Virus ............................................................................. 104
6.3 Virology ........................................................................................... 105
6.3.1 CHIKV ................................................................................. 105
6.3.2 DENV .................................................................................. 105
6.3.3 ZIKV .................................................................................... 106
6.4 Vectors of CHIKV, ZIKV, and DENV ............................................. 107
6.5 Pathogenesis of Disease ................................................................... 108
6.5.1 CHIKV Disease Pathogenesis .............................................. 108
6.5.2 DENV Disease Pathogenesis ............................................... 109
6.5.3 ZIKV Disease Pathogenesis ................................................. 111
6.5.4 ZIKV Immunity ................................................................... 112
6.6 Clinical Manifestations .................................................................... 112
6.6.1 CHIKV Clinical Disease ...................................................... 112
6.6.2 DENV Disease ..................................................................... 114
6.6.3 ZIKV Disease....................................................................... 116
6.7 Potential Treatments and Vaccines ................................................... 119
6.7.1 CHIKV Treatment ................................................................ 119
6.7.2 DENV Vaccines ................................................................... 120
6.7.3 ZIKV Vaccine ...................................................................... 121
6.8 Future Prospects ............................................................................... 121
References ................................................................................................. 123
7 Ebola and Marburg: Out of Africa ....................................................... 131
7.1 Introduction ...................................................................................... 131
7.2 Historical Aspects ............................................................................ 132
7.2.1 Marburg Virus [MARV] Infection ....................................... 132
7.2.2 Ebola Virus [EBV] Infection ................................................ 132
7.3 Virology ........................................................................................... 133
7.3.1 Ecology ................................................................................ 134
7.3.2 Transmission ........................................................................ 136
7.4 Pathogenesis ................................................................................... 136
viii Contents
7.5 Scale of Ebola West African Epidemic .......................................... 140
7.5.1 Clinical Manifestations ...................................................... 140
7.5.2 Diagnosis ............................................................................ 142
7.5.3 Management ....................................................................... 143
7.5.4 Experimental Treatment ..................................................... 145
7.5.5 Vaccines in Development ................................................... 146
7.6 Future Directions ........................................................................... 148
References ................................................................................................. 149
8 Hepatitis E: A Zoonosis .......................................................................... 155
8.1 Introduction .................................................................................... 155
8.2 Virology ......................................................................................... 155
8.2.1 Evolutionary History .......................................................... 155
8.2.2 Virology and Classification ................................................ 156
8.3 Distribution of Human Genotypes ................................................. 156
8.4 Epidemiology ................................................................................. 157
8.5 Pathogenesis ................................................................................... 158
8.6 Clinical Features ............................................................................ 160
8.6.1 Extrahepatic Manifestations of HEV ................................. 161
8.6.2 Chronic HEV Infection ...................................................... 162
8.6.3 Diagnosis ............................................................................ 163
8.7 Treatment ....................................................................................... 164
8.8 Prevention ...................................................................................... 166
8.9 Future Directions ........................................................................... 166
References ................................................................................................. 167
9 Zoonotic Malaria: Plasmodium knowlesi .............................................. 173
9.1 Introduction .................................................................................... 173
9.1.1 Evolution of Malaria .......................................................... 174
9.1.2 Historical Aspects............................................................... 175
9.1.3 The Parasite ........................................................................ 176
9.1.4 Pathogenesis ....................................................................... 177
9.1.5 Vector and Transmission .................................................... 178
9.1.6 Clinical Disease .................................................................. 180
9.1.7 Prevention ........................................................................... 183
9.1.8 Future Direction ................................................................. 184
References ................................................................................................. 185
10 Zoonotic Streptococci: A Focus on Streptococcus suis ......................... 189
10.1 Introduction .................................................................................... 189
10.2 Classification of Streptococci ........................................................ 189
10.3 Zoonotic Streptococci .................................................................... 190
10.4 Streptococcus canis ........................................................................ 191
10.5 Streptococcus equi, Streptococcus zooepidemicus,
and Streptococcus equisimilis ........................................................ 192
10.6 Streptococcus iniae ........................................................................ 194
Contents ix
10.7 Streptococcus suis .......................................................................... 195
10.7.1 General Background ........................................................ 195
10.7.2 Epidemiology of S. suis ................................................... 195
10.7.3 Microbiology of S. suis .................................................... 196
10.7.4 Virulence and Pathogenesis of S. suis .............................. 197
10.7.5 Clinical Aspects of S. suis Infection ................................ 199
10.7.6 Future Directions ............................................................. 204
References ................................................................................................. 204
11 New and Emerging Parasitic Zoonoses ................................................. 211
11.1 Introduction .................................................................................... 211
11.2 Baylisascariasis .............................................................................. 211
11.2.1 Epidemiology of Human Infection with B. procyonis ..... 213
11.2.2 Pathogenesis of Baylisascariasis ...................................... 214
11.2.3 Clinical Aspects of Baylisascariasis ................................ 215
11.2.4 Diagnosis of Baylisascariasis .......................................... 216
11.2.5 Treatment of Baylisascariasis .......................................... 217
11.2.6 Control and Prevention of Baylisascariasis ..................... 218
11.3 Dirofilariasis Emerging in Humans................................................ 218
11.3.1 Biology of Dirofilaria ...................................................... 219
11.3.2 Dirofilariasis in Animals .................................................. 220
11.3.3 Human Dirofilariasis ........................................................ 221
11.3.4 Control of Dirofilariasis ................................................... 223
11.4 Onchocerca lupi ............................................................................. 223
11.4.1 Epidemiology of Zoonotic Ocular Onchocerciasis .......... 224
11.4.2 O. lupi Clinical Aspects in Animals ................................ 224
11.4.3 Human Onchocerciasis Lupi ............................................ 225
11.4.4 Control of O. lupi Infection ............................................. 226
11.5 Trypanosoma evansi, T. lewisi, and Others: New Zoonotic
Trypanosomiasis ............................................................................ 226
11.5.1 Animal Infection with T. evansi ....................................... 227
11.5.2 New Zoonotic Trypanosome Infections in Humans ........ 228
11.6 Sarcocystosis .................................................................................. 229
11.6.1 Biology of Sarcocystosis ................................................. 230
11.6.2 Clinical Sarcocystosis in Humans.................................... 230
11.6.3 Diagnosis, Treatment, and Prevention of Human
Sarcocystosis .................................................................... 232
11.7 Future Directions ........................................................................... 233
References ................................................................................................. 233
Index ................................................................................................................. 241
Chapter 1
Pandemic Zoonoses from the Middle Ages
to the Twentieth Century
1.1 Historical Aspects
Zoonoses are diseases of animals transmitted to humans which have been in
existence for thousands of years [1]. It has been surmised that zoonoses had afflicted
ancestors of humans [Neanderthals, Homo erectus, and early Homo sapiens] from
the beginning of our evolution. Ancient humans living in caves depended on their
source of food from hunting and gathering of wild fruits and plants. Thus, exposure
to animal pathogens and cross infection was likely a constant threat of daily living.
Examination of preserved bones of Neanderthals [more than 100,000 years old] and
cavemen by paleontologists has revealed evidence of tuberculosis [likely bovine
origin] and chronic brucellosis [1].
Outbreaks or epidemics of zoonoses most likely were never experienced until
after the Agriculture Revolution about 10,000 years ago, when social communities
and farming developed. Metal tools and domestication of wild animals for food
began in Eurasia [the Bronze Age] 6000 years ago [1], and small epidemics of
animal- related infections may have started to appear. The original description of a
disease outbreak, an epidemic, had been attributed to Hippocrates between 480 and
380 BC [2]. Although epidemics of infectious diseases were recorded by historians
from the start of the Bronze and Iron Ages, across Europe and Middle East to Asia,
their microbial etiology remains speculative. The plague of Athens in 430 BC and
the plague of Antoninus in Rome [second century AD] were probably not secondary
to the plague bacillus [3]. Recurrent outbreaks of infectious diseases originating in
animals in this era have been attributed to overcrowding with the population explo-
sion in cities, domestication of animals, unsanitary conditions, and traveling
between cities and countries.
© Springer International Publishing AG 2017 1
I.W. Fong, Emerging Zoonoses, Emerging Infectious Diseases of the 21st Century,
DOI 10.1007/978-3-319-50890-0_1