Emerging Membrane Technology for Sustainable Water Treatment PDF
Preview Emerging Membrane Technology for Sustainable Water Treatment
EMERGING MEMBRANE TECHNOLOGY FOR SUSTAINABLE WATER TREATMENT NICHOLAS P. HANKINS The Oxford Centre for SustainableWater Engineering Department of Engineering Science The University of Oxford,Oxford, UK RAJINDAR SINGH Membrane Ventures,LLC Colorado Springs, CO, USA Amsterdam(cid:129)Boston(cid:129)Heidelberg(cid:129)London(cid:129)NewYork(cid:129)Oxford Paris(cid:129)SanDiego(cid:129)SanFrancisco(cid:129)Singapore(cid:129)Sydney(cid:129)Tokyo Elsevier Radarweg29,POBox211,1000AEAmsterdam,Netherlands TheBoulevard,LangfordLane,Kidlington,OxfordOX51GB,UK 50HampshireStreet,5thFloor,Cambridge,MA02139,USA Copyright(cid:1)2016ElsevierB.V.Allrightsreserved. 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BritishLibraryCataloguing-in-PublicationData AcataloguerecordforthisbookisavailablefromtheBritishLibrary LibraryofCongressCataloging-in-PublicationData AcatalogrecordforthisbookisavailablefromtheLibraryofCongress ISBN:978-0-444-63312-5 For informationonallElsevierpublications visitourwebsiteathttps://www.elsevier.com/ Publisher:JohnFedor AcquisitionEditor:KostasMarinakis EditorialProjectManager:ChristineMcElvenny ProductionProjectManager:DebasishGhosh Designer:VictoriaPearson TypesetbyTNQBooksandJournals LIST OF CONTRIBUTORS Catalina Alvarado Departmentof Civil and EnvironmentalEngineering, Rensselaer Polytechnic Institute, Troy, NY,USA O€zgu€r Arar Departmentof Chemistry, Faculty of Science,Ege University, Izmir, Turkey Dibakar Bhattacharyya Chemicaland Materials Engineering,University of Kentucky,Lexington, KY, USA W.Richard Bowen FREng, i-NewtonWales, Swansea, UK Jakob Buchheim Departmentof Mechanical and Process Engineering, Eidgeno€ssische Technische Hochschule (ETH) Zu€rich, Zu€rich, Switzerland Samuel Bunani Departmentof Chemical Engineering,Facultyof Engineering, Ege University, Izmir, Turkey; Departmentof Chemistry, Faculty of Science,Ege University, Izmir, Turkey;Departmentof Chemistry, Facultyof Science, University of Burundi,Bujumbura, Burundi MalyndaA. Cappelle TheUniversity ofTexasatElPaso,CenterforInlandDesalinationSystems,ElPaso,TX,USA Philip A.Davies Aston University,Birmingham, UK Thomas A. Davis TheUniversity ofTexasatElPaso,CenterforInlandDesalinationSystems,ElPaso,TX,USA Mengmeng Deng Departmentof Mechanical and Process Engineering, Eidgeno€ssische Technische Hochschule (ETH) Zu€rich, Zu€rich, Switzerland Kathryn Farris Departmentof Civil and EnvironmentalEngineering, Rensselaer Polytechnic Institute, Troy, NY,USA TakahiroFujioka Water and Environmental Engineering,GraduateSchool of Engineering, Nagasaki University, Nagasaki,Japan M.C. García-Payo DepartmentofAppliedPhysics,FacultyofPhysics,UniversityComplutenseofMadrid,Madrid, Spain xi xii ListofContributors J.Gilron TheZuckerbergInstituteforWaterResearch,BlausteinInstitutesforDesertResearch,Midreshet Sde Boker,Ben Gurion Universityof the Negev,Israel NicholasP. Hankins The Oxford Centre for Sustainable Water Engineering,Department of Engineering Science, The Universityof Oxford,Oxford, UK Claus H(cid:2)elix-Nielsen TheBiomimeticMembraneGroup,DTUPhysics,TechnicalUniversityofDenmark,Kongens Lyngby,Denmark; Facultyof Chemistry and Chemical Engineering,University of Maribor, Maribor,Slovenia Sebasti(cid:2)an Hern(cid:2)andez Chemical and Materials Engineering, University of Kentucky,Lexington, KY, USA Nalan Kabay Department of Chemical Engineering,Faculty of Engineering,Ege University, Izmir, Turkey Sher Jamal Khan National University of Sciences and Technology (NUST), Islamabad,Pakistan Mohamed Khayet DepartmentofAppliedPhysics,FacultyofPhysics,UniversityComplutenseofMadrid,Madrid, Spain;MadridInstituteofAdvancedStudiesofWater(IMDEAWaterInstitute),Madrid,Spain James Kilduff Department of Civil and Environmental Engineering,Rensselaer Polytechnic Institute, Troy, NY, USA Chang-Min Kim School of Environmental Science and Engineering, Gwangju Institute of Science and Technology (GIST), Gwangju,Republic of Korea Long D. Nghiem Strategic Water Infrastructure Laboratory, School of Civil, Mining and Environmental Engineering,University of Wollongong, Wollongong, NSW, Australia LindellOrmsbee Chemical and Materials Engineering, University of Kentucky,Lexington, KY, USA Hyung GyuPark Department of Mechanicaland ProcessEngineering,Eidgeno€ssische TechnischeHochschule (ETH)Zu€rich,Zu€rich, Switzerland Anthony Saad Chemical and Materials Engineering, University of Kentucky,Lexington, KY, USA Julio A. Sanmartino DepartmentofAppliedPhysics,FacultyofPhysics,UniversityComplutenseofMadrid,Madrid, Spain Li-Cheng Shen The Oxford Centre for Sustainable Water Engineering,Department of Engineering Science, The Universityof Oxford,Oxford, UK ListofContributors xiii Rajindar Singh MembraneVentures, LLC,Colorado Springs, CO, USA Chuyang Y. Tang Departmentof Civil Engineering,The University of Hong Kong, Pokfulam, Hong Kong Zhining Wang KeyLaboratoryofMarineChemistryTheoryandTechnology,MinistryofEducationofChina Ocean University of China, Qingdao,China Roman M. Wyss Departmentof Mechanical and Process Engineering, Eidgeno€ssische Technische Hochschule (ETH) Zu€rich, Zu€rich, Switzerland PREFACE ‘Overcomingthecrisisinwaterandsanitationisoneofthegreatesthumandevelopment challengesoftheearly21stcentury’,arecentUNreporthaswarned.Aboutoneinevery sixpeopletodaydonothavesufficientaccesstocleandrinkingwater,andtwiceasmany lackbasicsanitation.Asaresult,2.2milliondeathsperyeararerelatedtowater/hygiene/ sanitation; many of these are children. Such problems are forecast to grow worse, with more than half the world’s population facing chronic to critical water shortages by 2050, limiting economic development and food supplies. Ensuring adequate water supplies to allow a sustainable future, thus poses an engineering challenge of the first magnitude. What are the solutions to these challenges? New and massive reservoirs, wells, pipe- linesandrivertransfersarenolongeracceptable;amoresustainabledevelopmentanduse ofwaterresourcesisrequired,involvingmoresophisticatedtechnology.Climatechange means previously less water-stressed regions must rely increasingly on brackish under- ground waters or seawater as the main source of water, which can be energy intensive; alternatively, they must recycle and reuse wastewater. Yet global warming and rising fossil fuel prices both imply increasing challenges in the sustainable supply of energy. Add to this, the fact that the treatment of flowback water and produced water resulting from hydraulic fracturing (‘fracking’) of oil and gas wells is also becoming increasingly critical for safe disposal and reuse. All this implies further increases in the cost of water generally, and desalinated water in particular. On the other hand, an economically, environmentallyandsociallysustainabletechnologyforwatertreatmentshouldbeinex- pensive and energy-efficient, with minimal or no chemical consumption, it should be capable of water recycling and reuse that minimise the direct disposal of wastewater to the aquatic environment, and it should be an accessible technology which can be deployed in a wide range of human scenarios and over a wide range of physical scales. Membrane separation technology offers a very promising response to address these toughchallenges;ithasthepromisetodramaticallyimprovethesustainabilityofourwa- ter resources. In recent years, the deployment of membrane technology in the water sectorhasgrownexponentially.Thegrowinginterestinmembranetechnologyforwater and wastewater treatment is based on the following advantages: (cid:129) Compared to conventional technology, membrane technology has better contami- nantremovalefficiencies.Itthushasthecapabilitytoaddressmorestringentdrinking water regulations. Since it prevents the passage of Cryptosporidium, Giardia and other pathogenicbacteriaandviruses,itavoidstheriskofmicrobialoutbreakswithoutany chemical pretreatment. In wastewater treatment, membranes produce a very high xv xvi Preface effluentqualitythatmeetsstrictdischargeregulations,andeffluentscanbereusedfor industrial applications, irrigation and even as a source of potable drinking water. (cid:129) Thetechnologyishighlysuitableindevelopingcountries,becauseitcanbeusedfor small and distributed communities. Since a membrane filtration unit typically needs onlyhalforlessthefootprintofaconventionalpotablewaterorwastewatertreatment plant,itsavesonspaceandmoney.Thecapacityofanexistingplantcanbeincreased by membrane units without additional footprint, whether for plant upgrade, expan- sion orfor anew plant,enablingsubstantial capitalsavings. Furthermore,membrane units are modular in design, allowing for easy duplication and scale-up. (cid:129) Unlike the thermal effect units which are used for distillation, membrane separation processesdonotgenerallyinvolveboiling,allowingforagreatlyreducedenergycon- sumption.Theyarealsoideallysuitedtooperationwhichexploitsrenewableenergy sources, such as solar, wind and tidal. (cid:129) Withtheincreaseinmembranedeployment,particularlyinthewatersector,therehas beenasteadyreductioninmembraneequipmentcosts,makingwaterandwastewater treatment costs much lower. Indeed, recycling wastewater directly from municipal sewage is much cheaper in energy and resource terms than purifying seawater, and obviates wastewater disposal problems and water pollution. (cid:129) Membranesarecapableofprocessinghighlycontaminatedwater,suchasfloodwater and sewage, with high concentrations of suspended solids and organic compounds. Thus, the use of membrane technology facilitates the use of lower quality water, or so-called ‘sewer mining’. Moreover, it shows flexibility to handle changing feed- water conditions and capacity increases. The operation is simple and automated, which ensures that system integrity is met. Forallthesereasons,thereisarapidlyexpandingrangeofemergingmembranetech- nologies for sustainable water supply and treatment. This book has focused on these emergingandstate-of-the-artapplicationsbyinvitingcontributionsfromleadingexperts in four main areas, and each chapter highlights an area of innovative and promising technological development. Section 1 covers membrane processes for global water solutions, with introductory contributions on the ethical and sustainable utilisation of water, and on membrane- based water processing. In Section 2, desalination and potable water purification are highlighted,withcontributionsonforwardosmosisforsustainablewaterprocessing,mem- brane distillation for brine concentrate treatment, desalination by photovoltaic-powered RO, the use of fuel cells to power decentralised desalination in developing countries, theapplicationofion exchangemembranestowatersoftening andhigh-recoverydesali- nationatzerodischargeandanoverviewofelectromembraneprocesses.Attheotherend ofthewatersupplychain,Section3focusesonwastewatertreatmentforreclamationand reuse,anditincludestheremovaloftraceorganiccontaminantsbyNF/RO,theapplica- tionofpolymeresurfactanttechnologiestocontaminantremovalandrecovery,theuseof Preface xvii emerging membrane bioreactor technology for water reclamation and reuse and brine treatment for high-recovery desalination. Finally, Section 4 features novel membrane materials and applications, including high-purity water purification, development of aquaporin-based biomimetic membranes, porous ultrathin graphene membranes, nano- composite and pH/temperature-responsive membranes and finally membrane fouling and developments in control techniques. Throughoutthebook,theunifyingthemesofsustainability,energyandresourceef- ficiencyincludingrenewableenergy,andreclamation,reuseandrecycleareemphasised. As a whole, the book provides a unique and single source in highlighting the growing and competitive importance of innovative membrane technology for sustainable water supply and technology. Why a new book in this area? The challenges posed by water stress and poor water-related hygiene have assumed a growingurgencyinthepastdecade,tiedinextricablytothewaterefoodeenergynexus, in the midst of which global climate change has adopted a key and alarming position. Though membrane technology is hardly new, it has started to emerge globally in the past decade as a serious contender for this challenge at the large scale. Yet, whilst there are countless texts on water treatment and on membrane technologies, none address in a whole and integrated way the contribution which membrane technology is poised to make in the future. For the first time, the reader is able to see in one reference work the state of the art in this rapidly evolving area. Wewishtothankallthechaptercontributors, andappreciatetheeditorsatElsevier, Kostas Marinakis, Christine McElvenny and Debasish Ghosh for their support and patience.And,Rajindardedicatesthebooktohisfamily:RashnaBatliwala,SamirIndar and Namrita Shirin. Nicholas P. Hankins and Rajindar Singh November 2015 CHAPTER 1 Ethical and Sustainable Utilisation of Water: Global Scenarios and Engineering Responsibilities W. Richard Bowen FREng,i-NewtonWales,Swansea,UK 1.1 INTRODUCTION The development of a broad international consensus about the importance of human rights is one of the outstanding achievements of the twentieth century. The concept of human rights may be described as [1]: There is something about each and every human being, simply as a human being, such that certainchoicesshouldbemadeandcertainchoicesrejected;inparticular,certainthingsought nottobedonetoanyhumanbeingandcertainotherthingsoughttobedoneforeveryhuman being. The international consensus about this concept was first and most prominently demonstrated in 1948, through the United Nations’ Universal Declaration of Human Rights (UDHR) [2]. This recognises that respect for the inherent dignity, and conse- quently for certain equal and inalienable rights, of all human beings is the foundation of freedom, justice and peace in the world. The Declaration has been developed through various international, regional and national legal instruments. At the interna- tionallevel,twoofthemostimportantaretheInternationalCovenantonEconomic,Social and Cultural Rights (ICESCR) and the International Covenant on Civil and Political Rights (ICCPR). Human rights discourse continues to develop. Thus, in 2010 a resolution [3] of theGeneralAssemblyoftheUnitedNationsacknowledged‘theimportanceofequitable access to safe and clean drinking water and sanitation as an integral component of the realization of all human rights’, and further recognised: therighttosafeandcleandrinkingwaterandsanitationasahumanrightthatisessentialfor thefullenjoymentoflifeandallhumanrights. This resolution provides a very clear statement of the internationally recognised ethical importance of each person’s need for access to clean drinking water and sanita- tion. Furthermore, this importance should be considered in the context of the EmergingMembraneTechnologyforSustainableWaterTreatment ©2016ElsevierB.V. 3 http://dx.doi.org/10.1016/B978-0-444-63312-5.00001-2 Allrightsreserved. 4 EmergingMembraneTechnologyforSustainableWaterTreatment UDHRchallengethat‘everyindividualandorganofsociety.shallstrivebyteaching and education to promote respect for these rights and freedoms and by progressive measures,nationalandinternational,tosecuretheiruniversalandeffectiverecognition and observance’. Progressivemeasurestomeeteachperson’sneedsmustbesustainableiftheyaretobe truly effective. Thus, sustainability has become a major international concern, as exem- plifiedbytheUnitedNationsConferenceonSustainableDevelopmentinRiodeJaneiro in2012.Theoutcomedocument[4]ofthisconferencehadavisionof‘commitmentto sustainabledevelopmentandtoensuringthepromotionofaneconomically,sociallyand environmentallysustainablefutureforourplanetandforpresentandfuturegenerations’. It envisaged a world that is ‘just, equitable and inclusive’ in which people participate in decision-making that influences their lives. Water and sanitation are prominent in the document: We recognize that water is at the core of sustainable development as it is closely linked to a number of key global challenges. We therefore reiterate the importance of integrating water into sustainable development, and underline the critical importance of water and sanitation withinthethreedimensionsofsustainabledevelopment.Westresstheneedtoadoptmeasures to significantly reduce water pollution and increase water quality, significantly improve waste- watertreatmentandwaterefficiencyandreducewaterlosses.Inordertoachievethis,westress theneedforinternationalassistanceandcooperation. Herethethreedimensionsofsustainabledevelopmentareeconomic,socialandenvi- ronmental.Waterandsanitationarelinkedtomanyprioritiesoftheoutcomedocument, including health, food and energy. Thus,theneedsforethicalandsustainableutilisationofwaterarewidelyrecognised. This chapter will explore, at two levels, aspects of this recognition that are pertinent to the present book. Firstly, present global perspectives and likely global plans will be out- lined.Secondly,themorespecificresponsibilitiesofengineers,andespeciallymembrane engineers, will be considered. 1.2 GLOBAL PERSPECTIVES TheUnitedNationsGeneralAssemblyMillenniumMeetingin2000committednations to a new global partnership. It aims to reduce extreme poverty bysetting out a series of time-bound targets, with a deadline of 2015, that have become known as the Millen- nium Development Goals (MDG). The specific targets developed included to ‘halve the proportion of the population without sustainable access to safe drinking water and basic sanitation’, using data for 1990as abaseline. Much of therecent globalfocus con- cerningwaterandsanitationhasbeenonprogresstowardsthesetargets.Themostrecent update [5] shows not only that there has been significant progress, but also that there
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