Emerging Compounds Removal from Wastewater: Natural and Solar Based Treatments PDF
Preview Emerging Compounds Removal from Wastewater: Natural and Solar Based Treatments
SpringerBriefs in Molecular Science Green Chemistry for Sustainability Series Editor Sanjay K. Sharma For further volumes: http://www.springer.com/series/10045 Giusy Lofrano Editor Emerging Compounds Removal from Wastewater Natural and Solar Based Treatments 123 Giusy Lofrano Department of CivilEngineering Universityof Salerno Via PonteDon Melillo1 Fisciano 84084Salerno Italy ISSN 2191-5407 e-ISSN2191-5415 ISBN 978-94-007-3915-4 e-ISBN978-94-007-3916-1 DOI 10.1007/978-94-007-3916-1 SpringerDordrechtHeidelbergNewYorkLondon LibraryofCongressControlNumber:2012933970 (cid:2)TheAuthor(s)2012 Thisworkissubjecttocopyright.AllrightsarereservedbythePublisher,whetherthewholeorpartof the material is concerned, specifically the rights of translation, reprinting, reuse of illustrations, recitation,broadcasting,reproductiononmicrofilmsorinanyotherphysicalway,andtransmissionor informationstorageandretrieval,electronicadaptation,computersoftware,orbysimilarordissimilar methodology now known or hereafter developed. Exempted from this legal reservation are brief excerpts in connection with reviews or scholarly analysis or material supplied specifically for the purposeofbeingenteredandexecutedonacomputersystem,forexclusiveusebythepurchaserofthe work. Duplication of this publication or parts thereof is permitted only under the provisions of theCopyrightLawofthePublisher’slocation,initscurrentversion,andpermissionforusemustalways beobtainedfromSpringer.PermissionsforusemaybeobtainedthroughRightsLinkattheCopyright ClearanceCenter.ViolationsareliabletoprosecutionundertherespectiveCopyrightLaw. The use of general descriptive names, registered names, trademarks, service marks, etc. in this publicationdoesnotimply,evenintheabsenceofaspecificstatement,thatsuchnamesareexempt fromtherelevantprotectivelawsandregulationsandthereforefreeforgeneraluse. While the advice and information in this book are believed to be true and accurate at the date of publication,neithertheauthorsnortheeditorsnorthepublishercanacceptanylegalresponsibilityfor anyerrorsoromissionsthatmaybemade.Thepublishermakesnowarranty,expressorimplied,with respecttothematerialcontainedherein. Printedonacid-freepaper SpringerispartofSpringerScience+BusinessMedia(www.springer.com) Foreword At a time when the world’s population has reached seven billion people, sustainable design and environmental protection are critical to ensure that water resourceswillbeavailableforfuturegenerations.Itiswellrecognizedthatthereis anenergy/waternexus.Ittakeswatertogenerateenergyandenergytotreatwater. There is great opportunity to make wastewater treatment plants net energy users and even producers since there is 2–4 times the amount of energy embedded in wastewaterthanittakestotreatit.Aswedesignwastewatertreatmentplants,itis important to consider the kinds of treatment that will allow us to recover energy. It is also important to recover nutrients for use as fertilizers and to reclaim water for irrigation, since there is also a water/food nexus. Technology exists which allowswastewatertobetreatedtoalevelwhichremovesmicro-contaminantssuch as endocrine disruptors and pharmaceuticals which not only impacts receiving watersandtheiruses,butalsolimitstheabilityfordirectandindirectwaterreuse toensureadequatesupplyofwater.Theeditor,myfriendandcolleagueDr.Giusy Lofrano,intheframeworkofthisbooknotonlydiscussestheproblemsandissues associated with wastewater treatment but also offers technologically sound solutions. This book is an asset to all water professionals so they can become knowledgeable in the issues and develop sustainable design for wastewater treatment plants. Jeanette A. Brown v Preface Engineeringandsustainabledevelopmentareintrinsicallylinked.Manyaspectsof sustainable development depend directly on appropriate and timely actions made byengineers.Greenengineeringfocusesonhowtoachievesustainabilitythrough science and technology for it is one of its fundamental principle to consider the environment when designing products and technologies. Today, the term ‘green’ is used widely (and often inappropriately) in connec- tion with many types of technologies. Generally, a technology is defined ‘green’ because it requires less non-renewable energy sources than others or reduces the useofhazardouschemicals.However,atruly‘‘green’’technologyshouldconsider the recycling potential, the nutrient and the energy recovery as well as ensure the preservation of ecosystems. It can be argued that green engineering is not simply good chemical engineering or industrial ecology, which alone is not enough to achievesustainability.Indeed,evensystemswithefficientmaterialandenergyuse can overwhelm the recovery capacity of a region or lead to other socially unac- ceptable outcomes. As the quantity and quality of the resources and the resilience of the environ- ment changes over time, the most sustainable technological solutions will change accordingly. Green engineering was originally defined by the U.S. Congress Office of Technology Assessment as ‘‘green design involving two general goals: waste prevention and better material management’’. More recently, green engineering wasmorebroadlydefinedbytheU.S.EnvironmentalProtectionAgency(EPA)as ‘‘thedesign,commercialization,anduseofprocessesandproductsthatarefeasible andeconomicalwhileminimizing:generationofpollutionatthesourceandriskto bothhumanhealthandtotheenvironment’’.However,sustainabilityisnotonlyan issue for green engineering. Thedesign,thedevelopment,andtheimplementationofchemicalproductsare also looking at reducing or even eliminating the use and generation of substances thatmaybehazardoustobothhumanhealthandtheenvironment,andthereforeto green chemistry. vii viii Preface According to U.S. EPA, ‘‘green chemistry is required to promote innovative chemical technologies aimed at reducing or eliminating the use or generation of hazardous substances in the design, manufacture and use of chemical products.’’ Bothgreenengineeringandgreenchemistryarebasedontwelveprinciplesandthe terms are often used interchangeably. However, although some principles may be commontobothdisciplines,itisclearthattherearesignificantdifferencesintheir philosophy. Disciplines such as toxicology and thermodynamics play important roles in green chemistry despite they are not specifically included within the principles. Chapter 1 introduces green chemistry and its principles in relation to the technologies for the removal of emerging compounds from water and wastewater. How to evaluate and to achieve sustainability in wastewater treatment plants (WWTPs)? Their crucial role in protecting human and environmental health is widely recognized. However, their impacts have simply been shifted to another part of the overall life cycle when wastewater treatment is carried out by using hazardous or non-renewable materials. Therefore, in evaluating the sustainability of WWTPs, engineers should consider the entire life cycle, including those of materials and of energy inputs. Chapter 2 reviews the removal of emerging con- taminantsandindustrialpollutantsingeneralfromwaterandwastewaterbyusing naturalmaterialsoragriculturalwasteasadsorbents.Theproblemassociatedwith current treatment technologies lies in their lack of sustainability. If we look at centralized systems, for instance, it is clear that they are not always the best solution. The reasons are many: • theyflushcontaminantsoutofresidentialareasbyusinglargeamountsofwater; • they often combine domestic wastewater with rainwater, causing the discharge of large volumes of polluted wastewater; • they can contribute to spread a contained domestic health problem to an entire settlement or even to a region. Furthermore, many treatment systems are functioning properly but are never- theless unsustainable as they do not take into account the culture, the land, the climate, and the energy consumption of the country. Chapter3focusesonthefateoforganicchemicalsinconstructedwetlandsand aims at improving their assessment in full-scale studies. The removal of some categories of trace contaminant of worldwide relevance, classified as Endocrine Disruptor Compounds (EDCs) and Pharmaceuticals and Personal Care Products (PPCPs), has been reviewed together with the mechanisms associated to their removal. When a wastewater treatment technology has a high removal efficiency for contaminants, but consumes high amount of energy, this contributes to atmo- sphericcarbondioxideemissions.Thus,thereisnonetsustainabilityadvantagein thetreatmenttechnology.InChap.4,theauthorshighlightsomeofthescienceand technology being developed to improve the solar photocatalytic decontamination of water-containing pesticides. The potential of oxidative photochemical methods Preface ix usingsunlightaspromisingalternativestonon-efficientconventionaltreatmentsis discussed in Chap. 5. In an era when there is growing concern for the impact that our current envi- ronmentalstrategieshasatbothlocalandgloballevel,itiscrucialtodevelopmore environmentallyfriendlywastewatertreatmenttechnologies.Thehopeisforthese technologiestoreachtheenvironmental,economic,andsocietalsustainabilitythat will contribute to reduce sanitation problems, diseased, and poverty. Salerno, Italy, November 2011 Giusy Lofrano Acknowledgments This book was created within the series ‘‘Springer Briefs in Green Chemistry for Sustainability’’ edited by Professor Sanjay Sharma. To him, my warmest thanks. My most sincere gratitude goes to all the authors who devoted their precious timetocontributetothisvolumeandtoSoniaOjo,IlariaTassistro,andtheirteam at Springer for their valuable support that made this book possible. It has been a pleasure working with all of you. My thanks to Jeanette Brown, who honored me by signing the Foreword, will never be enough. I wish to express my most sincere gratitude to Süreyya Meric for all the competenceshowedovertheyearsandforthescientistsandfriendswhogaveme the chance to meet. IambeholdentoGiovanniDeFeowhosebrilliance,wittinessandvisionofthe environment informed and inspired me deeply. A special thanks to Ivana Marino whosupportedmecontinuouslyandunconditionallyandtoGiovanniPaganowho helped me with his encouraging comments. Lastbutnotleast,Iamgratefultomyfamily.Yourpatienceandlovepowermy life. Salerno, Italy, October 2011 Giusy Lofrano xi Contents 1 Green Chemistry for Green Treatment Technologies . . . . . . . . . . 1 1.1 Introduction . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 1 1.2 Green Chemistry. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 3 1.3 Green Technology. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 8 1.4 Concluding Remarks . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 11 References . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 11 2 Removal of Emerging Contaminants from Water and Wastewater by Adsorption Process . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 15 2.1 Introduction . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 16 2.2 Adsorption Process . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 17 2.2.1 Mechanisms and Definitions. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 17 2.2.2 Adsorption Isotherms. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 18 2.2.3 Factors Affecting Adsorption . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 19 2.3 Removal of Emerging Compounds by Adsorption. . . . . . . . . . . 20 2.3.1 Commercial Adsorbents. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 21 2.3.2 Low Cost Adsorbents . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 26 2.4 Adsorption as Green Technology. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 30 2.5 Concluding Remarks . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 32 References . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 33 3 Removal of Trace Pollutants from Wastewater in Constructed Wetlands . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 39 3.1 Introduction . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 40 3.2 Constructed Wetlands . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 40 3.2.1 Technological Aspects. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 40 3.2.2 Drawbacks and Advantages . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 42 3.2.3 Plants Configuration . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 43 3.2.4 Worldwide Diffusion. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 44 xiii
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