Embedded System Design on a Shoestring: Achieving High Performance with a Limited Budget (Embedded Technology)

244 Pages·2003·4.26 MB·English

Embedded System Design
on a Shoestring
Achieving High Performance with a Limited Budget
by Lewin A.R.W. Edwards
Amsterdam Boston Heidelberg London New York Oxford
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Contents
Acknowledgments........................................................iv
Chapter 1: Introduction..................................................................1
Chapter 2: Before You Start—Fundamental Decisions...................9
General Microcontroller Selection Considerations.......................................9
Choosing the Right Core ...........................................................................13
Building Custom Peripherals with FPGAs..................................................19
Whose Development Hardware to Use—Chicken or Egg? ........................21
Our Hardware Choice—The Atmel EB40 ...................................................29
Recommended Laboratory Equipment ......................................................30
Free Development Toolchains....................................................................32
Free Embedded Operating Systems...........................................................36
GNU and You—How Using “Free” Software
Affects Your Product .................................................................................44
Choices of Development Operating System...............................................51
Special PCB Layout and Initial Bring-Up Rules
for the Shoestring Prototype .....................................................................53
Hints for Surface-Mounting by Hand.........................................................62
Choosing PCB Layout Software.................................................................65
Chapter 3: The GNU Toolchain.....................................................71
Building the Toolchain ...............................................................................71
Overview of the GNU Build Environment...................................................76
GNU Make and an Introduction to Makefiles .............................................80
v
Contents
Gas—The GNU Assembler ........................................................................87
Comments...........................................................................................88
Symbols and Labels ............................................................................88
Code Sections and Section Directives .................................................90
Pseudo-Operations..............................................................................96
Conditional Assembly Directives .......................................................108
Macros, Assembler Loops and Synthetic Instructions ......................111
Ld—GNU Linker......................................................................................114
Introduction.......................................................................................114
The SECTIONS command..................................................................118
Symbol Assignments, Expressions and Functions ............................119
Output Section Descriptions..............................................................124
Overlay Section Descriptions.............................................................127
Emitting Data Directly into the Executable.........................................131
Input Section Descriptions ................................................................132
Named Memory Regions...................................................................134
Special Considerations for C++ .........................................................136
Further ld Information .......................................................................137
Converting Files with Objcopy .................................................................138
Objdump—Check Your Executable’s Layout............................................139
Size—Check the Load Size of Your Executable........................................143
Gdb—The GNU Debugger.......................................................................143
Invoking and Quitting gdb and Loading Your Program .....................145
Examining Target Memory.................................................................148
Breakpoints and Other Conditional Breaks ........................................149
Getting Further Help ..........................................................................151
Chapter 4: Example Firmware Walkthroughs
and Debugging Techniques.....................................................153
A Quick Introduction to ARM and the Atmel EB40 ..................................153
First Step—the LED Flasher (in Assembler)............................................158
vi
Contents
Bringing Up a Simple C Program—
The LED Flasher (in C).............................................................................167
Writing a Simple Flash-Loader
(and Inspecting Memory with gdb) .........................................................172
A Simple ROM-Startup Program.............................................................180
A Complete ROM-Startup Application in C..............................................185
Blind-Debugging Your Program ..............................................................194
Miscellaneous Glue—Handling Hardware Exceptions
in C with gcc............................................................................................199
Chapter 5: Portability and Reliability Considerations..................203
Chapter 6: Useful Vendors and Other Web Resources...............221
Index of CD-ROM Contents.....................................................................223
About the Author.......................................................227
Index.....................................................................229
vii
Acknowledgments
The author would like to extend his sincere thanks to the follow-
ing individuals and corporations who have contributed directly
and indirectly to the publication of this book:
■ Atmel developer support
■ Cadsoft Computer, Inc.
■ Cirrus Logic developer support
■ Michael Barr
■ Don McKenzie of dontronics.com
■ Spehro Pefhany
■ Rob Severson of USBmicro
■ Sharp Microelectronics developer support
In keeping with the open-source nature of this book’s subject
matter, the manuscript of this work was developed entirely using
the free open-source OpenOffice.org office productivity suite,
under Red Hat Linux 8.0.
ix
Chapter 1
Introduction
There exists a large body of literature focused on teaching both
general embedded systems principles and design techniques, and
tips and tricks for specific microcontrollers. The majority of this
literature is targeted at small 8-bit microcontrollers such as the
Microchip PIC, Atmel AVR and the venerable 8051, principally
because these devices are inexpensive and readily available in
small quantity, and development hardware is available from a
variety of sources at affordable prices. Historically, higher-per-
formance 16- and 32-bit parts have been hard to obtain in small
quantities, their development toolchains have been prohibitively
expensive, and the devices themselves have been difficult to de-
sign around, with tight electrical and timing requirements on
external circuitry necessitating very careful hardware design. A
dearth of royalty-free, open-source operating system and library
code for these processors also meant that developing a new project
was a huge from-the-ground-up effort.
However, over the past few years we have simultaneously
seen the size and price of 16- and 32-bit cores fall, and the devel-
opment of many highly integrated parts that enable the easy
development of almost single-chip 32-bit systems. In addition,
many readily available appliances now contain a well-documented
32-bit microcontroller with ample flash memory, RAM and a
variety of useful peripherals such as color LCDs, network inter-
faces and so forth, which can be exploited by the cunning
embedded developer as a ready-made hardware platform. Cross-
platform assemblers, high-level language compilers and
debugging tools are available free for the downloading and will
run satisfactorily on the average desktop PC; it is no longer nec-
1
2 Chapter 1
essary to spend tens of thousands of dollars on proprietary com-
pilers and special workstations on which to run them.
As these systems have increased in complexity, to a certain
extent the degree of specialization required to develop them has
decreased. This might sound paradoxical, but consider the fact
that high-end 32-bit embedded systems, and the tools used to
develop for them, are effectively converging with the low-end
mainstream PC. The skills required to develop an application for
embedded Linux, NetBSD or Windows CE are by intention not
radically different from the skills used in developing applica-
tions for the desktop equivalents of these operating systems
(though of course different coding best practices usually apply in
embedded environments). In most cases there are mature off-
the-shelf operating systems available ready-to-run for the common
hardware reference designs and manufacturer-supplied evalua-
tion boards, so we are usually spared even the initial bring-up
phase and much of the effort required to debug device drivers.
Given a working hardware platform with reasonably well-
documented components, the only task for which traditional
embedded expertise is absolutely necessary is to create the nec-
essary bootstrap and “glue” code to get a C run-time working on
the target platform, and perhaps create drivers for some periph-
erals (and as discussed above, even this step can often be skipped
if you are building around a reference platform). From that point
on, most of the programming work to be done runs in the appli-
cation layer and can be accomplished using high-level languages.
There is a large workforce available almost ready-trained for this
type of coding.
The end result of this evolutionary process is that it is now
well within the financial and logistical reach of a small company
or even an individual hobbyist or student to develop (or at least
repurpose) advanced embedded systems with exciting function-
ality provided by these high-performance parts. Unfortunately,
however, device vendors’ support infrastructures are still geared
towards large-scale commercial developers. This raises two ma-
jor obstacles:
Introduction 3
1. Development hardware for high-end parts is, by and large,
still too expensive for the average hobbyist or student. This is
partly a chicken-and-egg problem; the only source for evalu-
ation boards for 32-bit parts is usually the chip vendor, because
there isn’t sufficient third-party interest to see third-party evalu-
ation platforms developed. The resulting small volumes and
lack of competition conspire to keep prices high. From hear-
say, it seems likely that some chip vendors also have an
intentional policy of excluding small customers from purchas-
ing high-end devices. In many cases, the evaluation board is
unavoidably expensive because it is designed to showcase what
can be achieved in a maximally configured appliance in the
chip’s target market; consequently, the board has a large num-
ber of peripherals.
2. In order to ensure continued support from major embedded
toolchain vendors, chip designers usually recommend only
specific development environments, all of which are extremely
expensive. It is still quite rare to find explicit manufacturer
support for freely available compilers and debuggers, despite
the widespread adoption of such tools in the industry at large.
One underlying business reason for this is that in order for a
new part to be credible, it should be supported from its re-
lease by well-known commercial toolchain vendors. To
encourage active interest from the developers of these
toolchains, and to reduce their own support workload, the chip
vendors generally avoid mention of free, user-supported tools.
The main object of this book is to illustrate some methods of
overcoming these obstacles and realizing exciting projects around
today’s high-performance chips. A strong secondary objective is
to assist developers in migrating from the coddled environment of
one-click graphical integrated development environments to the
command-line tools typical of free toolchains. Although there are
many references for this available on the Internet and in printed
form, the authors of such guides usually do not archive the tool
versions they discuss in their text, and their instructions often con-
tain information that is not applicable to the currently available
versions of the tools. It can therefore be difficult for the neophyte
4 Chapter 1
to know which of his or her problems are genuine coding errors,
and which are simply the result of documentation inconsistencies.
Given these goals, this volume is aimed at the following groups
of readers:
Hobbyists and students. These people are typically financing
the acquisition of development hardware and software out of their
own pocket. They do not necessarily expect a direct cash return
on this investment, and they are usually working alone or in small
groups. This type of reader is interested in solutions that involve
minimal startup expenses and don’t require large engineering teams.
Entrepreneurs. This class of reader has a product idea that needs
to be at least prototyped so that it can be shown to potential in-
vestors with the aim of securing development financing. Not only
does a real prototype have a much better “wow” value (and hence
a better chance of attracting investors) than a sketch and verbal
description, but developing the prototype will reveal and perhaps
solve many of the engineering problems to be encountered in
making the real product. This obviously translates directly into a
shorter time-to-market.
Engineers working alone or at small companies. Small engi-
neering houses that currently work with 8-bit systems may realize
significant gains by moving to 32-bit parts. In many cases, func-
tionality provided by dedicated hardware in the 8-bit system can
be synthesized in firmware on the 32-bit system – this has obvi-
ous profit benefits because the company can thin its inventory to
just a few standard hardware platforms, differentiating products
by means of firmware features. Customer satisfaction can also
be enhanced, since new features can be added with simple firm-
ware upgrades. Because the hardware is standardized, reference
designs have a longer lifespan, meaning that new projects may
only require incremental software changes – potentially an enor-
mous saving in development time. However, the leap from 8 to
32 bits is a significant one and it can seem prohibitively expen-
sive in the short term even when the long-term benefits are well
understood. After reading this book, it should be clear that the
up-front investment is not necessarily huge, and it may be time
to make the big jump to 32-bit cores.