Embedded Sensor Systems

491 Pages·2017·18.441 MB·english

by  Dharma Prakash Agrawal

Dharma Prakash Agrawal
Embedded Sensor Systems
123
Dharma PrakashAgrawal
EECSDepartment, Centerfor Distributed
andMobileComputing
University of Cincinnati
Cincinnati, OH
USA
ISBN978-981-10-3037-6 ISBN978-981-10-3038-3 (eBook)
DOI 10.1007/978-981-10-3038-3
LibraryofCongressControlNumber:2016962036
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Preface
Sensor systems have been around for quite some time, and their obvious use in
thermometer has gone unnoticed until recently. Their unique capability of moni-
toring a given area has attracted attention, and sensors have been useful in
numerousareas.Ienvisionedtheneedforthisbookseveralyearsagowhenstarted
offering such a course. During the last four years, I collected papers on wireless
sensornetworks(WSNs)andpreparedpptfilesfromthemtodeliverlectures.Iwas
fortunatetobeinvitedasaGIANspeakerattheIITKharagpurinsummer2015,a
premier institute in India. This encouraged me to write two chapters every week
whenIofferedthiscourseagainattheUniversityofCincinnatiagainduringspring
2016. I was invited again to NIT Hamirpur, Himachal Pradesh, India, to deliver
lectures under GIAN program and that encouraged me to redraw all pdf-based
diagrams in black and white ppts. After that, I also visited Wuxi, China, to get
first-handinformationaboutGreenOrbsprojectandwasabletoaddthenewestinfo
on large-scale WSN deployment.
Within engineering and computer science disciplines, wireless sensor network
has recently attracted unparalleled interest. In particular, combinations of wireless
communication and tiny sensor devices have revolutionized the world of
telecommunications. To fully explore and utilize this new technology, universities
needtooffernewcoursesandtrainstudentsinthefieldsothattheycouldcontinue
their graduate work in this area. However, the students in computer science and
engineering (CSE) and electrical engineering (EE) are at best exposed to data
communicationaspects,whilesensor-embeddedsystemsremainuntouched,asitis
relatively difficult to learn about WSNs without having substantial background in
wirelesscommunicationtechnology.Ontheotherhand,EEstudentslearnaboutthe
radio frequency (RF) communication aspect only, and the topic of data commu-
nication and computing system issues and their correlation in nomadic WSN
remains untouched. I put in more efforts in streamlining all the chapters after my
return to the USA in July 2016.
ManyinstitutionsoffercourseinWSNarea,primarilyforgraduatestudents,and
thenonlyasspecialtopics.AlthoughtherearemanyeditedbooksrelatedtoWSNs,
these books can be roughly classified into two groups. The first group focuses on
vii
viii Preface
readers in specific application areas, and the other covers only the general
knowledge of environmental monitoring. The books in the first group require a
detailed background inRF communication and signal processing and therefore are
notsuitableforstudentsinCSE.Manyrecenttextsemphasizemicrowaveradarand
sensorsystems.However,thebooksinthesecond group donotprovideanydepth
in the data communication aspects of the technology.
Creating such a unique instructional curriculum requires a great deal of efforts.
Planningsuchatextisarelativelydifficulttaskbecauseofthediversebackground
requirements. The limitations of most existing books and courses affect the sensor
industries in the USA. Companies must train newly hired college graduates for a
long time before they can get into WSNs. To the best of our knowledge, such an
organizedcourse isnotbeen taught anywhere intheworld.Teaching WSN course
strictly from research papers is difficult for the professor, which in turn causes
students to learn the material inefficiently. Preparing systematic notes in this
emerging area will enhance training, increase the availability of well-educated
personnel, shorten the new employee training period within industries, and allow
nations to continue to advance the research in this technological field.
This book explains how a WSN works in monitoring a given environment.
I have selected chapter topics that focus on qualitative descriptions and realistic
explanations of relationships between WSNs and performance parameters.
Mathematical formulations are needed in engineering and computer science work,
andweincludesomeoftheimportantconceptssothatstudentscanappreciatetheir
usefulness in numerous WSNs. In all these applications, both security and privacy
issues are important. The chapters are organized to provide a great deal of flexi-
bility; emphasis can be given on different chapters, depending on the scope of the
course and the instructor’s own interests or emphasis.
In this textbook, I have tried to provide an overview of the basic principles
behind WSNs and associated support infrastructure. A list of possible group sim-
ulationprojectsisincluded.Theauthorhastriedsuchprojectsforseveralyearsand
has found them highly effective in training students. This book is written both for
academicinstitutionsandforworkingprofessionals.Itcanbeusedasatextbookfor
a one-semester or a one-quarter course. This book also can be used for training
current or new employees of companies and could be adopted for short-term
trainingcourses.IhopeIhavebeenabletoachieveourgoalofhelpingstudentsand
others working in this area to have a detailed knowledge about this exciting
technology.
Cincinnati, OH, USA Dharma Prakash Agrawal
Contents
Part I General Sensor Characteristics
1 Introduction to Cell Phones and Wireless Technologies .. ..... .. 3
1.1 Introduction ... .... ..... .... .... .... .... .... ..... .. 3
1.2 MS Obtaining Traffic Channels from BS.. .... .... ..... .. 9
1.3 Multiplexing Schemes Used by a BS for Traffic Channels.. .. 9
1.4 Orthogonal Frequency Division Multiplexing Access. ..... .. 13
1.5 Directional Antenna and SDMA .... .... .... .... ..... .. 13
1.6 Cellular Transmission..... .... .... .... .... .... ..... .. 14
1.6.1 Cellular Coverage Area for Traffic Channels ..... .. 15
1.6.2 Signal Strength in Cellular Area.. .... .... ..... .. 18
1.6.3 Roaming Support . .... .... .... .... .... ..... .. 19
1.7 Access to Control Channels.... .... .... .... .... ..... .. 20
1.8 Different Wireless Technologies. .... .... .... .... ..... .. 27
1.9 Access Points.. .... ..... .... .... .... .... .... ..... .. 28
1.10 Sensor Networks ... ..... .... .... .... .... .... ..... .. 29
1.11 Conclusions ... .... ..... .... .... .... .... .... ..... .. 32
1.12 Questions. .... .... ..... .... .... .... .... .... ..... .. 32
References .. .... .... .... ..... .... .... .... .... .... ..... .. 34
2 Applications of Sensor Networks. .... .... .... .... .... ..... .. 35
2.1 Introduction ... .... ..... .... .... .... .... .... ..... .. 35
2.2 Applications of WSNs.... .... .... .... .... .... ..... .. 37
2.2.1 Defense Applications of WSNs... .... .... ..... .. 39
2.3 Civilian Applications ..... .... .... .... .... .... ..... .. 46
2.3.1 Weather Monitoring Applications. .... .... ..... .. 46
2.3.2 Precision Agriculture Applications .... .... ..... .. 50
2.3.3 Echo System Monitoring Applications . .... ..... .. 52
2.3.4 Biomedical Applications.... .... .... .... ..... .. 55
2.3.5 Other Applications .... .... .... .... .... ..... .. 61
2.4 Conclusions ... .... ..... .... .... .... .... .... ..... .. 62
xi
xii Contents
2.5 Questions. .... .... ..... .... .... .... .... .... ..... .. 62
References .. .... .... .... ..... .... .... .... .... .... ..... .. 62
3 Different Types of Transducers.. .... .... .... .... .... ..... .. 65
3.1 Introduction ... .... ..... .... .... .... .... .... ..... .. 65
3.2 Types of Transducers..... .... .... .... .... .... ..... .. 68
3.3 Temperature Transducers.. .... .... .... .... .... ..... .. 72
3.4 Gas Transducers.... ..... .... .... .... .... .... ..... .. 73
3.5 Capacitive Transducers.... .... .... .... .... .... ..... .. 75
3.5.1 Proximity Transducers . .... .... .... .... ..... .. 76
3.6 Fluid-Level Transducers... .... .... .... .... .... ..... .. 77
3.7 Humidity Transducers .... .... .... .... .... .... ..... .. 78
3.7.1 Inductive Transducers.. .... .... .... .... ..... .. 82
3.8 Magnetometer Transducers. .... .... .... .... .... ..... .. 85
3.9 Optical and Underwater Transducers . .... .... .... ..... .. 85
3.9.1 Underwater Acoustic Transducers. .... .... ..... .. 87
3.10 Strain and Biomedical Transducers .. .... .... .... ..... .. 88
3.10.1 Pressure Transducers... .... .... .... .... ..... .. 88
3.11 Radiation Transducers .... .... .... .... .... .... ..... .. 91
3.12 Transducers for Biomedical Applications.. .... .... ..... .. 96
3.13 Conclusion.... .... ..... .... .... .... .... .... ..... .. 102
3.14 Questions. .... .... ..... .... .... .... .... .... ..... .. 102
References .. .... .... .... ..... .... .... .... .... .... ..... .. 103
4 Transducers’ Range Modeling... .... .... .... .... .... ..... .. 105
4.1 Introduction ... .... ..... .... .... .... .... .... ..... .. 105
4.2 Modeling of a Transducers’ Sensing Range.... .... ..... .. 107
4.3 Modeling of Camera Transducers’ (C-SN) Sensing Range.. .. 116
4.4 Conclusions ... .... ..... .... .... .... .... .... ..... .. 119
4.5 Questions. .... .... ..... .... .... .... .... .... ..... .. 119
References .. .... .... .... ..... .... .... .... .... .... ..... .. 120
5 Clock Synchronization and Localization... .... .... .... ..... .. 121
5.1 Introduction ... .... ..... .... .... .... .... .... ..... .. 121
5.2 Clock and Signal Propagation in a WSN.. .... .... ..... .. 123
5.3 Localization of a SN ..... .... .... .... .... .... ..... .. 129
5.4 Conclusions ... .... ..... .... .... .... .... .... ..... .. 136
5.5 Questions. .... .... ..... .... .... .... .... .... ..... .. 137
References .. .... .... .... ..... .... .... .... .... .... ..... .. 138
6 Topology Discovery, Residual Energy, and Energy Harvesting . .. 139
6.1 Introduction ... .... ..... .... .... .... .... .... ..... .. 139
6.2 Neighbor Determination and Hop Distance .... .... ..... .. 141
6.3 MAC Protocols .... ..... .... .... .... .... .... ..... .. 142
6.4 Residual Energy Mapping . .... .... .... .... .... ..... .. 144
6.5 Routing with Energy Harvesting .... .... .... .... ..... .. 147
Contents xiii
6.6 Energy Harvesting by Fuel Cells and Healthcare
Applications... .... ..... .... .... .... .... .... ..... .. 149
6.7 Balanced Energy Consumption with Multiple Paths.. ..... .. 155
6.8 Conclusions ... .... ..... .... .... .... .... .... ..... .. 155
6.9 Questions. .... .... ..... .... .... .... .... .... ..... .. 155
References .. .... .... .... ..... .... .... .... .... .... ..... .. 156
7 TCP, Neighborhood Formation, Reliable Transport,
and Simulators for WSNs . ..... .... .... .... .... .... ..... .. 159
7.1 Introduction ... .... ..... .... .... .... .... .... ..... .. 159
7.2 Identifying Neighboring SNs... .... .... .... .... ..... .. 160
7.3 Delivering Packets to BS/Sink.. .... .... .... .... ..... .. 165
7.4 Reliability of Delivered Packets. .... .... .... .... ..... .. 167
7.5 BS to SNs Reliability..... .... .... .... .... .... ..... .. 169
7.6 Congestion Control . ..... .... .... .... .... .... ..... .. 171
7.7 Impact of Lower Layers on TCP.... .... .... .... ..... .. 177
7.8 Conclusions ... .... ..... .... .... .... .... .... ..... .. 179
7.9 Questions. .... .... ..... .... .... .... .... .... ..... .. 179
References .. .... .... .... ..... .... .... .... .... .... ..... .. 179
8 Sensor Nodes (SNs), Camera Sensor Nodes (C-SNs),
and Remote Sensor Nodes (RSNs).... .... .... .... .... ..... .. 181
8.1 Introduction to Sensor Nodes... .... .... .... .... ..... .. 181
8.2 Camera Sensor Nodes (C-SNs) . .... .... .... .... ..... .. 183
8.3 Digital Images Using CCDs and CMOS Sensors.... ..... .. 186
8.4 Application of Camera Sensor Nodes (C-SNs).. .... ..... .. 188
8.5 Remote Sensor Node (R-SNs) Applications.... .... ..... .. 190
8.6 Conclusions ... .... ..... .... .... .... .... .... ..... .. 193
8.7 Questions. .... .... ..... .... .... .... .... .... ..... .. 193
References .. .... .... .... ..... .... .... .... .... .... ..... .. 193
Part II Random Topology
9 Sensor Node Coverage and Connectivity for Random
Deployment. .... .... .... ..... .... .... .... .... .... ..... .. 197
9.1 Introduction ... .... ..... .... .... .... .... .... ..... .. 197
9.2 Coverage and Placement of SNs .... .... .... .... ..... .. 199
9.3 Individual Sensor Coverage and Area Coverage by SNs ... .. 202
9.4 Energy-Hole Problem in a Randomly Deployed WSN..... .. 204
9.5 Conclusions ... .... ..... .... .... .... .... .... ..... .. 207
9.6 Questions. .... .... ..... .... .... .... .... .... ..... .. 207
References .. .... .... .... ..... .... .... .... .... .... ..... .. 208
10 Medium Access and Routing.... .... .... .... .... .... ..... .. 209
10.1 Introduction ... .... ..... .... .... .... .... .... ..... .. 209
10.2 Collision Avoidance in a WSN . .... .... .... .... ..... .. 209
xiv Contents
10.3 Routing in a WSN.. ..... .... .... .... .... .... ..... .. 213
10.4 MAC Challenges for a WSN... .... .... .... .... ..... .. 219
10.5 S-MAC Protocols with Sleep–Awake Cycles... .... ..... .. 221
10.6 Conclusions ... .... ..... .... .... .... .... .... ..... .. 225
10.7 Questions. .... .... ..... .... .... .... .... .... ..... .. 225
References .. .... .... .... ..... .... .... .... .... .... ..... .. 226
11 Broadcasting, Data Aggregation, and Opportunistic
Forwarding. .... .... .... ..... .... .... .... .... .... ..... .. 229
11.1 Introduction ... .... ..... .... .... .... .... .... ..... .. 229
11.2 Broadcasting .. .... ..... .... .... .... .... .... ..... .. 229
11.3 Lifetime of a WSN . ..... .... .... .... .... .... ..... .. 236
11.4 Query Processing and Data Collection.... .... .... ..... .. 243
11.5 Mobility as an Enabler in WSNs.... .... .... .... ..... .. 245
11.6 Conclusions ... .... ..... .... .... .... .... .... ..... .. 247
11.7 Questions. .... .... ..... .... .... .... .... .... ..... .. 248
References .. .... .... .... ..... .... .... .... .... .... ..... .. 248
12 Clustering and Energy Consumption Minimization.. .... ..... .. 251
12.1 Introduction ... .... ..... .... .... .... .... .... ..... .. 251
12.2 Clustering. .... .... ..... .... .... .... .... .... ..... .. 251
12.3 Sensor Properties and Resource Constraints.... .... ..... .. 255
12.4 Conclusions ... .... ..... .... .... .... .... .... ..... .. 264
12.5 Questions. .... .... ..... .... .... .... .... .... ..... .. 264
References .. .... .... .... ..... .... .... .... .... .... ..... .. 266
13 Intrusion Detection Using WSNs. .... .... .... .... .... ..... .. 267
13.1 Introduction ... .... ..... .... .... .... .... .... ..... .. 267
13.2 Intrusion Detection Schemes ... .... .... .... .... ..... .. 271
13.3 Intrusion Detection Based on Hybrid Gaussian
Deployment ... .... ..... .... .... .... .... .... ..... .. 279
13.4 Maintaining Anonymity... .... .... .... .... .... ..... .. 282
13.5 Base Station Location Anonymity ... .... .... .... ..... .. 288
13.6 Conclusions ... .... ..... .... .... .... .... .... ..... .. 291
13.7 Questions. .... .... ..... .... .... .... .... .... ..... .. 292
References .. .... .... .... ..... .... .... .... .... .... ..... .. 292
Part III Regular Topology
14 Coverage and Connectivity for Regular Deployments.... ..... .. 297
14.1 Introduction ... .... ..... .... .... .... .... .... ..... .. 297
14.2 Mesh and Other Topologies.... .... .... .... .... ..... .. 298
14.3 Rhombus and Irregular Topologies .. .... .... .... ..... .. 308
14.4 More Complex Topologies. .... .... .... .... .... ..... .. 308
14.5 Topologies with K-Connectivity. .... .... .... .... ..... .. 308
Contents xv
14.6 Connected Coverage with Directional Antennas
and C-SNs.... .... ..... .... .... .... .... .... ..... .. 312
14.7 Conclusions ... .... ..... .... .... .... .... .... ..... .. 318
14.8 Questions. .... .... ..... .... .... .... .... .... ..... .. 326
References .. .... .... .... ..... .... .... .... .... .... ..... .. 327
15 Routing and Performance of Regular WSNs ... .... .... ..... .. 329
15.1 Introduction ... .... ..... .... .... .... .... .... ..... .. 329
15.2 Routing in Regular Topologies . .... .... .... .... ..... .. 329
15.3 Processing in Regular Topologies ... .... .... .... ..... .. 335
15.4 Mobile Opportunistic Concept for Regular WSN
Topologies.... .... ..... .... .... .... .... .... ..... .. 336
15.5 Conclusions ... .... ..... .... .... .... .... .... ..... .. 348
15.6 Questions. .... .... ..... .... .... .... .... .... ..... .. 349
References .. .... .... .... ..... .... .... .... .... .... ..... .. 351
16 Personal/Body Area Networks and Healthcare Applications.... .. 353
16.1 Introduction ... .... ..... .... .... .... .... .... ..... .. 353
16.2 Activities of Daily Living . .... .... .... .... .... ..... .. 356
16.3 Available Biomedical Transducers... .... .... .... ..... .. 361
16.4 Parkinson’s Disease and Fatigue Level Detection ... ..... .. 364
16.5 Communication Through Skin.. .... .... .... .... ..... .. 366
16.6 Interference in WBANs ... .... .... .... .... .... ..... .. 371
16.7 Data Reduction Schemes .. .... .... .... .... .... ..... .. 375
16.8 Physiological Parameters for Identification Secured
Communication .... ..... .... .... .... .... .... ..... .. 383
16.9 Conclusions ... .... ..... .... .... .... .... .... ..... .. 387
16.10 Questions. .... .... ..... .... .... .... .... .... ..... .. 388
References .. .... .... .... ..... .... .... .... .... .... ..... .. 388
Part IV Security and Actuator Issues
17 Authentication, Encryption, and Secured Communication ..... .. 393
17.1 Introduction ... .... ..... .... .... .... .... .... ..... .. 393
17.2 Possible Attacks.... ..... .... .... .... .... .... ..... .. 393
17.3 Attacks in Routing Schemes ... .... .... .... .... ..... .. 396
17.4 Encoding Schemes.. ..... .... .... .... .... .... ..... .. 399
17.5 Symmetric Matrix-Based Scheme.... .... .... .... ..... .. 406
17.6 Matrix-Based Scheme (EPKEM) .... .... .... .... ..... .. 407
17.7 Authenticated Key Agreement Based on Identity-Based
Cryptography (IBC). ..... .... .... .... .... .... ..... .. 409
17.8 Conclusions ... .... ..... .... .... .... .... .... ..... .. 411
17.9 Questions. .... .... ..... .... .... .... .... .... ..... .. 412
References .. .... .... .... ..... .... .... .... .... .... ..... .. 412
xvi Contents
18 Interaction with Actuators and WSN Test Beds. .... .... ..... .. 415
18.1 Introduction ... .... ..... .... .... .... .... .... ..... .. 415
18.2 A Generic WSN–Actuator Organization... .... .... ..... .. 415
18.3 Actuators for a Vineyard .. .... .... .... .... .... ..... .. 420
18.4 Mobile BS and Anchor Node Collecting Data from SNs... .. 421
18.5 Role of a System Actuator. .... .... .... .... .... ..... .. 424
18.6 Conclusions ... .... ..... .... .... .... .... .... ..... .. 424
18.7 Questions. .... .... ..... .... .... .... .... .... ..... .. 424
References .. .... .... .... ..... .... .... .... .... .... ..... .. 425
Part V Research Directions
19 Deployed Large-Scale WSNs and Associated Design Steps ..... .. 429
19.1 Introduction ... .... ..... .... .... .... .... .... ..... .. 429
19.2 Deployed WSNs ... ..... .... .... .... .... .... ..... .. 429
19.3 Forest Fire with Regularly Deployed SNs and Following
Gaussian Distribution..... .... .... .... .... .... ..... .. 431
19.4 Use of Controlled Deployment and Needle-Comb
Approach to SNs ... ..... .... .... .... .... .... ..... .. 435
19.5 Conclusions ... .... ..... .... .... .... .... .... ..... .. 443
19.6 Questions. .... .... ..... .... .... .... .... .... ..... .. 443
References .. .... .... .... ..... .... .... .... .... .... ..... .. 444
20 Recent Advances. .... .... ..... .... .... .... .... .... ..... .. 447
20.1 Introduction ... .... ..... .... .... .... .... .... ..... .. 447
20.2 Visual Sensor Networks... .... .... .... .... .... ..... .. 447
20.3 WSNs in the Context of IoT, WoT, and SWoT. .... ..... .. 451
20.4 Conclusions ... .... ..... .... .... .... .... .... ..... .. 454
20.5 Questions. .... .... ..... .... .... .... .... .... ..... .. 459
References .. .... .... .... ..... .... .... .... .... .... ..... .. 460
Questions and Ideas for Design Projects. .... .... .... .... ..... .... 463
Index .... .... .... .... .... ..... .... .... .... .... .... ..... .... 465