Elizabeth Bishop and the Poetry of Meditation

19 Pages·2017·0.23 MB·English

by  James Matthew Wilson

religions
Article
Elizabeth Bishop and the Poetry of Meditation
JamesMatthewWilson
DepartmentofHumanitiesandAugustinianTraditions,VillanovaUniversity,800LancasterAve.,Villanova,
PA19085,USA;[email protected]
AcademicEditor:KevinHart
Received:5July2016;Accepted:4January2017;Published:11January2017
Abstract: Elizabeth Bishop’s poetry has won the admiration of a number of Christian poets and
scholars. ThisessayarguesthatonereasonforthisisBishop’ssubtleengagementwiththeworkof
thepoet-divinesGerardManleyHopkinsand,especially,GeorgeHerbert;throughtheirinfluence,
sheentersintotheguidingwesternpoetictraditionofthemeditativelyric,whichisrootedinthe
PlatonicandChristianaccountsofthehumanpersonasanimageoftheTriuneGodinvirtueofthe
mindasatrinityofmemory,understanding,andwill. Bishoppracticedpoetryasamoralactopento
adivinityitcannotaccountfororevenname,buttracesofwhosesignificancerunthroughtheworld
herpoemsdepict. Byconsideringherwork,andherpoem“TheWeed”inparticular,inthecontextof
Herbert,thehistoricalstudiesofLouisL.Martz,andtheliterarytheoryofYvorWinters,weseethat
Bishoptheunbelievercannotproperlybeunderstoodasa“secular”poet,butasonewhorecognizes
themeditativelyricasawayofarrivingatunderstandingofatruththattranscendsus.
Keywords: ElizabethBishop;YvorWinters;LouisL.Martz;MeditativeLyric;theSecular;George
Herbert;ChristianPlatonism;Augustine;modernpoetry
1. Introduction
Overthelastfewyears,IhavenoticedthatanumberofChristianpoetsandscholarsofChristianity
seemtoharboraparticularaffectionfortheworkofElizabethBishop,andthattheydosoforreasons
evidentlytiedtotheirreligiousbeliefs. Idonotmeanbythistheoft-citedadmirationofDanaGioiafor
Bishop. AlthoughGioiamaynowbeAmerica’sbest-knownlivingCatholicpoet,hisworkinprose
andversehas,untilrecently[1],shiedawayfromanysuchtitle,andindeedhehaswrittenthatBishop
influencedhimchieflyinherunwaveringcommitmenttotheself-effacementoftheartistengagedin
craft,inmakingagoodpoem.1 Ithinkratherofessaysandbooks,suchasthosebyCherylWalker[4],
LaurelSnowCorelle[5],andElisaNew[6],which,althoughneverseekingtobaptizeBishopbythe
forceofinterpretativewill,takethepoet’sCalvinistchildhoodandanguishedagnosticismalongside
herpoemsasmaterialforserioustheologicalanddevotionalmeditation.2
GiventhetrajectoryofBishop’slife,whichproceedsataslow,grindingpacedownaslopeof
uncontrolled,addictive,andself-destructiveappetites,thishasalwayssurprisedme,thoughperhaps
itshouldnot([4],p. 21). Bishop’scontemporariestowhomsheisoftenlikened,RobertLowell[7]
1 GioiahaspublishedtwoessaysonBishop.Thefirstoffersanappreciationofthepoetasanexampleofthepoet’sreticent
dutytocraftinanagecharacterizedbyindulgent(confessional)self-possession[2].Thesecond,writtenmanyyearslater,
attemptstoaccountfortheriseofthisonceminorpoetto“major”orcanonicalrankintheopinionofcontemporary
criticsandlayreaders[3].ThefirstdescribestheroleasmentorandinspirationforGioia’sownwork,whilethesecond
acknowledgestheroleofgenderstudiesintheincreasedinterestinherworkwhileattemptingtoshowthatthepoetryitself
transcendsthepassingsociologicalorhistoricalattentionthathasbeenpaidtoher.
2 CorelleandNewseekchieflytoshowthatBishop’srichanddevoutProtestantbackgroundcontinuedtobeasourceof
inspirationandanxietythroughoutthecourseofhercareer([5],pp. 1,39). Walkerismoreprovocativeandambitious.
HerfineliterarystudyseekstostepbeyondcontemporaryconventionsofcriticismtoexploreBishop’sworkasastimulus
toChristiandevotion.
Religions2017,8,10;doi:10.3390/rel8010010 www.mdpi.com/journal/religions
Religions2017,8,10 2of19
andJohnBerryman[8],livedatleastequallyunhappylives;andyet,throughtheworkofsensitive
critics,includingNew,andtheirbiographer,theCatholicpoetPaulMariani,theyhavetakentheir
placesamongthemorerivetingdramasoftheCatholicintellectualrevivalthatoccupiesacentralplace
inTwentieth-CenturyAmericanliteraryhistory.3 Furthermore, indeliberatecontrastwithLowell,
Bishop’spoemseschewanguishedandsometimesvitriolicexpressionsofpersonalapostasy—indeed,
theyprogrammaticallyifinconsistentlyavoidthepersonal,inthesenseof“confessional.”Therestraint,
theausterity,thethird-personobjectivitythatcharacterizethemajorityofBishop’spoemsnotonly
eliminatesthislikelyobstacleforherChristianreaders;theseveryhallmarks—developinganapproach
topoetryandmannersshefoundandadmiredinhermentor,MarianneMoore—arewhatgiveher
workitsdistinctiveplaceinthepoetryofthelastcentury([5],pp. 4,14).
Isthereanyothermodernpoetwhosedisciplineinversesoabsolutelydominates,conceals,and
yetalsorespondstoanunrulinessineverydaylife? Icanthinkofafewcomparableexamples,but
Bishopnonethelessstandsoutforherpeculiarachievementinthisregard. Iwouldliketopropose
Bishopasoneoftheconsummatemodernpractitionersofoneoftheleadingtraditionsoflyricpoetry
inEnglish—thepoetryofmeditation[10]. AndIsuggestthatherworkaddsanotable,iflimited,new
dimensiontoit;itisadimensionthatBishopherselfmaynothaveappreciatedandwhoseimplications
she may well have denied, but it is also one which, I propose, helps explain the abiding interest
Christianreaders,scholars,andpoetshavetakeninherwork.
TherootsofthemeditativelyrictraditionaredecisivelyChristian,asLouisL.Martzproposed
decades ago in his ground-breaking study, The Poetry of Meditation [11]. Bishop maintains and
develops its conventions through a close but uneven engagement with those roots—above all, as
theyareexpressedinthedevotionalpoetryofGeorgeHerbertandGerardManleyHopkins[12–15].
As a nonbeliever she nonetheless found resources in the devout Christian poetic of those two
predecessorsandsheadaptedtheirmeditativepracticestoanendthatislessthantruecontemplation
but more than merely what I shall call therapeutic self-reflection. In this sense, her work exhibits
poetryaswhattheAmericanpoetandcriticYvorWinterscalledamoralact[16]. Myintentionisto
considerthemoraltenorofBishop’sworkanditsdebttoandmodificationsoftheChristiantradition
ofthemeditativelyricasawayofexplainingwhyBishophasgarneredtheChristianaudienceshehas.
Iwilldescribesomeofthemeditativefeaturesfoundinmanyofherpoems,butattendwithspecific
caretoherearlyengagementwithHerbert,inherpoem“TheWeed,”wherewhatismostdistinctively
modernandapparently“secular”aboutBishop’sworkseemsalsostrangelytintedbyherengagement
withtheChristianmeditativelyrictradition. Ishallconcludewithareflectiononwhatitmeansforher
meditativelyricstobemoralratherthandevotionalactssoastomakeclearthat,whiletheycanonly
becalledChristianinsofarastheydrawambivalentlyonChristianity’sintellectualvisionandmoral
concerns,itdoesnotilluminatethecharacterofherworktocallit“secular”inthefamiliarmodern
senseoftherefusalofanythingthattranscendstemporallifeinthisworld.4 Tothecontrary,acentral
qualityofherworkisitsoftennigglingsuggestionthattheworldisinformedby—“moralized”by—
atranscendentdimensionthatshecontinuestoperceivethoughshehaslostthefaithnecessaryto
name. Takingthatsuggestionseriouslyinturnshadeshowwemayreadherpoeticcareerasawhole.
3 Ihavesummarizedtheirroleinthattraditionelsewhere[9].
4 Thelastseveraldecadeshaswitnessedasubstantivecallingintoquestionthenatureofthe“secular”andthecharacterization
ofoursasa“secular”age. TheworkofCharlesTaylorandJohnMilbankrevealsitasamuchmorehistoricallylimited
andyetcomplexandevenincoherentaccountofthemodernagethanitmighthaveappearedtoapoetlikeBishopin
mid-centuryAmerica.FromAugustineforward,asRobertMarkushasablyshown,Catholicthoughthasaclearconception
ofthe“secular”notaswhatrefusestolookbeyondthisworld,butaswhatissimplyaproperimmanentconcerntoit.
Myuseofthewordissimplerandmorefamiliartothecontemporaryreaderthanthesetheorizations,andisconveniently
definedinRémiBrague’sshortessay,“TheImpossibilityofSecularSociety”[17].There,Bragueproposesthatthemodern
useof“secular”derivesfromthetermusedspecificallytodescribetheChristianvisionoftheworldascreatedanddestined
topassaway.Initsmodernacceptation,hecontends,weuseittodescribeavisionoftheworldthattakesintoaccountonly
thespanavailablefor“livingmemory”([17],p. 28). Inthissense,tobesecularmeanstothinkonlyintermsofwhatis
immanenttousinspaceandtime,i.e.,inthisworldforaboutahundredyears(acentury),andsotorefusetothinkinterms
ofwhatisspirituallyorhistoricaltranscendentofthatlowhorizon.
Religions2017,8,10 3of19
2. Bishop’sMoralForms
WhileBishopwrotearemarkablevarietyofpoemsgiventhesmallsizeofheroeuvre,5thetrait
most obvious in her work is a close attention to the concrete (sensible or surface) details of place
andcharacterthatfurnishtheoccasionforarestrainedbutdefinitemoralanalysis. Recallthevivid
portrayal,earlyin“TheMoose,”ofabusasit“journeyswest,”
thewindshieldflashingpink,
pinkglancingoffofmetal,
brushingthedentedflank
ofblue,beat-upenamel;
downhollows,uprises,
andwaits,patient,while
alonetravelergives
kissesandembraces
tosevenrelatives
andacolliesupervises. ([18],pp. 158–59)
Thepoembeginswithacatalogueofconcretebuttellingobjectstodescribebutalsodefinethe
“narrow provinces” where the poem is set, and slowly leads us here, to the bus’s waiting, where
itspatienceindicatesthatBishop’sattentiontothematerialobjectsoftheworlddoesnotleadherto
presenthersurroundingsasadequatelyapprehendedonceonehasattendedonlytotheirphysical
features. Sheseeks,rather,torevealhowsubtleandyethowcompleteisthemergenceinexperience
betweensensiblefactsandtheirmoralsignificance. Theeyeseesthepatienceofabusalongwiththe
busitself,andwhileitisthelonetravelerwholiterallysaysgoodbyeintheselines,thatvaledictionis
fulfilledorcompletedbythebus:
Goodbyetotheelms,
tothefarm,tothedog.
Thebusstarts. ([18],p. 159)
Otherpoems,suchas“TheFish”,“Seascape”,“AttheFishhouses”,“TheArmadillo”,and“Arrival
atSantos”repeatthisprocedure. Theyofferinitialprecise,impersonaldescriptionthatremainsat
oncedistinctfrom,butcontinuouswith,adisciplineofmoralanalysisthattypicallyrefusestomake
anypronouncementsunearnedbywhatdescriptionhasactuallyshown,andseemstodosobecause
thatanalysisisalreadyembeddedinthelandscapeofthepoem. Alatepoem,“12O’ClockNews”,
showsthatthereisacertainplayfulnesstoherprocedure. Bishop’sabandonmentoftheProtestant
Christianityofherfamilywasclearlyprovokedbyaresistancetocompulsorybeliefsofanykind,and
herpoetryinconsequencelargelyresistscommittingitselfwhollytothemoraldimensionitdiscloses.
AsCorellenotes,
ForBishoptheimplicitcertitudeofanysystemwasanathematoherremarkablyconsistent
approach to life and literature, which was, broadly speaking, to remain wide open to
possibilityandatthesametimetoresistbeingconscripted—intoanyfaith,institution,or
unilateralconcept. ([5],p. 5)
WeshallseethatthisdescriptionofBishopasmaintainingadogmaticadherencetothepossible
probablycomportsneatlywithherownself-understanding. Butameaninglessphraselike“unilaterial
concept”encouragesustothinkthereissomethinginadequateaboutthisunderstanding;Iwilltryto
5 Bishoppublishedninety-fivepoemsinherlifetime.Whilesheleftagreatdealofpoetryunpublished,ithassofarmetwith
mixedevaluationfromscholars([12],p.47;[5],pp.16–17).
Religions2017,8,10 4of19
provideamorepreciseonebelow. Nonetheless,letthepointstandthatBishop’spoetryoftendepicts
the material world as genuinely rife with moral significance even as some poems simultaneously
entertainandresistthatdepictionbyrenderingitamatterofpoeticplayor,moreoften,bysimply
ignoringthequestionssuchadepictionraises.
Oneofherbestknownpoems,“TheFish”,allowstheencounterwithamorally,perhapseven
divinely,“charged”worldtounfoldinapowerfulway.6 There,Bishopprovidesanexacting,indeed
exhaustive,descriptionofafishthepoethascaughtandheld“besidetheboat/halfoutofwater,with
myhook/fastinacornerofhismouth”([18],p. 33). Asshediscernsthescarsofenduranceinthe
fish’sbody,itslipandjaw,shebeginstofeela“victory”overdeathfillup“thelittlerentedboat,”until,
finally,thescalesofthefishandtheoilspreadingacrossthebilgewater’ssurfacearoundtheboat’s
littleoutboardengineturneverything“rainbow,rainbow,rainbow!”([18],p. 34). Anecstaticphrase,
itmayseem,recallingmomentsfromGenesisandthesynopticGospels,asifthesignificanceofthe
scenecanappeartousonlyifdrawnfromelsewherebywayofallusion. Butthismissessomething.
Thepoemhasanepiphany,tobesure,butitdoesnotdescendfromelsewhereorabove. Rather,it
emergesfrombelow,asfactgivesupitsmeaning. Therepeatedwordsarerestatementsofwhatwas
alreadypresentbutseenforthefirsttimeinfullsignificance. Bishop’spoemsalwaysseemtorespect
whatis,buttheydiscernnotjustontologicalorintelligiblesignificance,asmuchmodernpoetrydoes,
butalsothemoralimperatives—theoughts—embeddedintheworldaswecometoknowit.7
OneofBishop’smostaccomplishedpoems,“AttheFishhouses,”hassometimesbeenaccusedof
violatingthehard-earnedobjectivityofitsearlylineswithitsmoreself-reflectiveconcludingpassage.
Thischargedoesnotholdup. Itis,however,worthnoting,becauseitindicateshernormalpractice
ofbeginningintheconcreteandarrivingatabstractandmoralobservationonlythereafter. Itisalso
worthansweringinordertoshowstillfurtherhowaBishoppoemoperateswithitssubtlemovement
fromimpersonaldescriptiontomoralperceptionwithoutthelattereverviolatingoursenseofwhatis
alreadypresentintheformer. Thefirstsixty-sixofitseighty-threestaggered,freeverselinesprovide
arestrainedandsustaineddescriptionofacoldeveningonthedocksofanorthernfishingvillage:
Althoughitisacoldevening,
downbyoneofthefishhouses
anoldmansitsnetting,
hisnet,inthegloamingalmostinvisible,
adarkpurple-brown,
andhisshuttlewornandpolished. ([18],p. 50)
Thesceneslowlyunfoldsthroughalternationsofobscureandglisteningcolors(thepurple-brown
ofthenetwhichcontrastswiththescatteredsilverofthesea,tossedlobsterpots,glimmeringmasts,
andbenches,andaboveallthecreamofscalesintheherringtubs),andofsoberingandawakening
6 AsLaffordnotes,Hopkins’accountoftheworldas“chargedwiththegrandeurofGod,”andthat“charge”astheintelligible
mysteryofsignspresentwithinthelandscapeas“inscape,”clearlyinformsBishop’sdepictionofthemoralformofthe
worldinherownpoems([15],pp.253,262).Cf.Walker([4],p.132).
7 SeeWilson,“TheRealismofHelenPinkerton”[19]andWilson,“BrianCoffey,JacquesMaritain,andtheRecoveryofthe
‘Thing’”[20]foraccountsof“ontologicalsignificance”asrepresentedinmodernpoetry.MooreandBishoparedistinctive
becauseoftheirunfetteredconcernwiththedidacticormoralsignificancetobefoundinthings.The“is/ought”distinction
IuseheretodescribethatsignificanceisofcourseHume’slaw[21].Iamproposingthatthe“impoverished”mechanistic
viewofcausality(andofrealityasawhole;Cf.Jenkins[22]andSchindler([23],pp.129–62)articulatedbyHumeisthe
oneBishopmightexpectustoassumeandtheonethatherpoetryresistsbydescribingtheworldaroundusasbearing
intrinsicmoralsignificance.Wecouldaccountfortheworldshedepictsinother,moresatisfactory,waysthanthatallowed
bythevocabularyofBritishempiricism,butIamspecificallytryingtobringoutthewayherpoetryassumesbutthen
movesagainstthatvocabulary.Sheisoneofmanymodernistpoetswhosensesthatthesupposedrationalityof“secular”
modernityisanimpoverishedonethatmakestheimaginativetropesofpoetrytoappearasresidualsofmythandas
irrelevantdistortionsoftheactualworld,andyetwhogoesinsearchofwaystoexpressthespiritualsignificanceofthings
asapossibleliteralreality.Whathercontemporariestakeasmerefigurativelanguagesheplayswithorhintsatasdisclosing
somethingmore.Toperceivethis,itiseasiesttotakeHume’sempiricismasexpressiveofthetypical“secular”viewpoint
againstwhichshewrites.
Religions2017,8,10 5of19
sensations(thestiffeningcoldcontrastedwiththeair,which“smellssostrongofcodfish/itmakes
one’snoserunandone’seyeswater”[18],p. 50). Theclothingofthefishermanisdescribed,asarethe
ritualsofworkthatatothertimestranspireinthispresentlystillscene. Thefrequentsightingofaseal
isnoted,alongwiththepoet’sserenadinghimwithBaptistandotherhymns. Allthiscomestousin
prosaicanddiscursivefashion,asifjotteddownwithnocriterionofselectionotherthantheeffortto
omitnothingthatmaybeobserved.
Butthen,Bishop’spersona,whichhasenteredthesceneonlyenoughtorecordthatshespeaks
andsmokesacigarettewiththeoldman,who“wasafriendofmygrandfather”([18],p. 51),andto
singtotheseal,emergesfromtheitemizedscenetoassumeapositionofauthorialreflection. This,in
turn,promptshertoaddressthereaderinthesecondperson:
Ihaveseenitoverandover,thesamesea,thesame,
slightly,indifferentlyswingingabovethestones,
icilyfreeabovethestones,
abovethestonesandthentheworld.
Ifyoushoulddipyourhandin,
yourwristwouldacheimmediately
yourboneswouldbegintoacheandyourhandwouldburn
asifthewaterwereatransmutationoffire
thatfeedsonstonesandburnswithadarkgrayflame.
Ifyoutastedit,itwouldfirsttastebitter,
thenbriny,thensurelyburnyourtongue.
Itislikewhatweimagineknowledgetobe:
dark,salt,clear,moving,utterlyfree,
drawnfromthecoldhardmouth
oftheworld,derivedfromtherockybreasts
forever,flowinganddrawn,andsince
ourknowledgeishistorical,flowing,andflown. ([18],p. 52)
TheclaimsBishopmakeshere,culledfromthesensationofwatersochillitburns,arebolder
thanthequietsuggestionin“TheMoose”thatabusmightwaitwithpatience. Butthelastlineofthe
poemprovidesuswithajustificationforhermovementfrommaterialdetailtomoralsignificance.
Ourknowledgeishistorical,itisderivedfromandboundtoourtemporalexperience,and,assuch,
it also informs that experience and bears within it a trace of experience’s flux. The sea’s flow is
like knowledge; but also, knowledge is like the sea’s flow. We expect knowledge to be “cool” and
disinterestedasanidealbeyondthe“heat”oftime,butBishopshowsthatsuchknowledgeisalready
pregnant with figurative significance: metaphor is required to reveal the real analogies between
things. Thus,precisedescriptionsdonot,intheirexactitudes,severmeaningfromexperiencethrough
anunrelentingandliteralempiricismthatwouldreducerealitytosensation. Theyratherestablish
thatthefluxofsensationalreadybearswithinitatranscendentsignificanceandanylastingsign—the
objectofknowledge—willfindexpressionintermsof,inrelationto,theflux. Familiardistinctions
of“fact”and“value”collapse,becausewhatgoesbythenameof“value”isatoncealreadywithin
every“fact”—thatishowwecometoperceiveit—andbeyondit,suchthatitissomethingwecan
reallycometoknow,inthesenseofhavingapermanentorlastingidea.
“AttheFishhouses”doesthisinapeculiarmannertypicalofBishop’spoetry. Thesubstance
ofthepoem’sfinallineisthatallknowledgepassesaway,thatitispartofthefluxthatitcomesto
know,astheknowernolessthantheknownis“historical,”onerelativerealitywithinthepassageof
time. Itwouldseemtobeaplaindisavowalofthepossibilityofgenuineknowledge,whichweexpect
in some sense to stand beyond history even if it is known within it. And yet, the claim overleaps
the bounds of this position with its quiet but final and universalized didacticism. It concludes by
suggestingapointofviewabovethatoftheattentive,expresslysubjective,first-personvoiceofthe
poem,atonceadmittingusintoitandyetstoppingbeforespecifyingitsnature. Thedefinitiveclaim
Religions2017,8,10 6of19
withwhichthepoemendsitselfstands“abovethestonesandthentheworld,”givingtothefluidity
ofhistoricalexperienceadepthofpermanentmeaning. Thelyricvoicemovesfromtherecordingof
sensation“up”tomoralreflection,wherethemeaningofthingscanbejudged.
Fromthisfinal“transcendent”perspective,welookbackupontheliteraldetailsofthepoemand
seethatBishophascontinuouslyworkedacontrastbetweenthedarknessofdepthandsignificance
andthe“creamyiridescent”surfacesoftheworld([18],p. 51).“Allissilver”and“opaque”onthe
surface,Bishopwrites,drawingourattentiontwicetothe“layersofbeautifulherringscales,”whichare
the“principalbeauty”ofthose“unnumberedfish”caughtupfromthedepthsofthesea([18],p.51).
Such beauty is, of course, the waste left behind by the cleaning of fish in preparation for selling
the edible interior “depths” of their bodies at market. The silver shine of surface has thus drawn
the poet to reflection on what it conceals; appearance draws her toward reflection on the depths
ofhistoricalandintellectualsignificance. Wherethefishcomefrom—the“Colddarkdeep”ofthe
interior([18],p.51)—istheinevitabledestinationofapoemthatseems,atitsstart,concernedonlyas
itwerewiththesilverskinofthings.
Thepoemleaveswhatthetruemeaningofthisworldisvexedwithuncertainty,however.Theseal
listenstoherBaptisthymns“asifitwereagainsthisbetterjudgment”([18],p. 52),sothatwehave
gesturestowardChristiandevotionandtowardanaturalworldanthropomorphizedandsorendered
morallyintelligibletous,butbotharecomicallycanceledbytheseal’s“skepticism.”Thewholescene
isrimmedbehindthepoetbyalineof“dignifiedtallfirs”([18],p. 52). Liketheseal,thesetooare
graced with a kind of moral significance, as the poet associates them with Christmas—“a million
Christmastreesstand[ing]/waitingforChristmas”([18],p. 52). ButsuchaChristianassociationhas
adeflatedandunbelievingundertone. So,finally,theknowledgedrawnfromthesea,theanalogy
betweentheseaandknowledge,atthepoem’smomentofgreatestseriousnessoftoneandsubject,
seemslikeamomentofincarnation—knowledgecomingintotheworldafterthefashionoftheWord
(logos)madeflesh. LiketheChristchild,itseemseven“derived”,ifnotfromhuman,atleastfrom
“rockybreasts”([18],p. 52). Andsowehaveanimageoftranscendentorderbecomingonewiththe
flowofhistory,andofthedepthsoftheseawitheternaltruth. Thepoemseemstogiveustheseimages
ofskinbecomingdepth,literaldetailbecomingliteralsignificance,andthentostopshortandundercut
them. Thepoemasameditationleadsthepoetonaninteriorjourneythroughhistorytoknowledge,
andyetleavesindoubtwhereitiswehaveendedup.
Howunremarkable,onemightsay.DidnotCharlesOlson,inhis“ProjectiveVerse”manifesto,reject
justthisspeciesofpoetryastheoverwhelmingbulkofpoetastersshowingforth“the-private-soul-at-any-
public-wall”([24],p. 15)? Hedidindeed,andinsodoing,heattemptedtocuthis“projectiveverse”
offfromoneofthemostenduringandformidableintellectualandartistictraditionswehave,thatof
themeditativelyric. Inthehopeofbreakingwithcertainformalconventionsthattheyfoundstale,
post-modernpoetssuchasOlsonsurrenderedadisciplinewhosehistorymeritsrecountinghere—
adiscipline,again,whichBishop’sworkexemplifiesanddevelopsinsuchawayastowinhernot
onlyalastingreadershipbutonethatincludesmanyChristianscholarsandwriters.
LikeOlson,Bishopwouldcriticizethetherapeuticversionofthemeditativelyric,whichLowell
andBerrymanwerepopularizingundertherubricof“confessionalverse.”Shedidso,however,notin
ordertocollapsetheinteriorityoflyric,buttoinsistuponmoraldisciplineratherthananindulgent
self-dramatizationascentraltoitsachievement. “Youjustwishthey’dkeepsomeofthesethingsto
themselves,”shewouldconcludeabouttheconfessionals([12],p. 48). Repelledbytheexaggerated
“morbidity” ([12], p. 48) of their candor, Bishop came to identify more with the early modernists,
whose impersonal lyrics operated with a far greater historical vision and more ambitious moral
framework([5],p. 9). LiketheT.S.Eliotof“TraditionandtheIndividualTalent,”shewouldviewthe
restraintofthelyricofmeditationasameanstounderstanding—includingself-understanding—rather
than as an offspring of unrestrained self-exposure ([5], pp. 15–16). It is this vision that lends her
workitsdeepcontinuitywiththelyricofmeditationasIshalldefineit—especiallythedevotional
lyricsoftheseventeenthcentury([5],p. 2)—andalsowiththeliterarytheoryofWinters,whichwe
Religions2017,8,10 7of19
shallseeunderstoodtheshortpoemasatechniqueofcontemplationandmoralunderstandingthat,
while not necessarily devotional, clearly saw an orientation to the divine, however ambivalent or
implicit,asessentialtoitself.
3. TheMeditativeLyricintheChristian-PlatonistTradition
Bishop’sreadershavelongconsideredherworktoparticipateinatradition,beginningwithearly
imagism and especially the poetry of William Carlos Williams, one that celebrates an exact eye for
things[25]. AsIhavealreadysuggested,herpoemsgowellbeyondcarefulobservationtoenterinto
amodeofmoralreflectionthatconsistentlydiscernswithinwhatmeetstheeyemorethantheeye
itselfcansee. Inthis,shemaybetterbesituatedinthelongtraditionofthemeditativelyric,themain
traditioninEnglishpoetry—and,indeed,inwesternlyricpoetrywritlarge—asitwasfirstdescribed
byMartzmorethanhalfacenturyago. IshallprovidehereabriefsketchofMartz’sunderstandingof
themeditativelyrictraditionanditssources;asasketchitwillbeincompleteandasonespecifically
of Martz’s position it will largely ignore both the development of theories of the meditative lyric
that modify or contest his claims as will it pass over with just a few sentences the long historical
backgroundinwesternphilosophy,theology,andspiritualitythatwouldbenecessarytomeasurethe
fullsignificanceofthetraditionMartzidentifies. IchooseMartz’saccountofthemeditativelyricnot
becauseitisthemostthorough,orthemosthistoricallyexhaustive,butratherbecausethespiritofhis
inquiryattemptedtomakeconnectionsbetweenpoeticpracticeandtheenduringwesterntradition,
stemmingfromclassicalpaganandChristiansources,ofananthropologythatunderstandsthehuman
person in terms of its having a nonmaterial rational soul ordained to the contemplation of divine,
eternaltruth.
InbothancientPlatonicandlaterChristianthought,thehumanpersonisunderstoodasordered
toanddestinedforthecontemplationofGod. SincetheappearanceofSt. Augustine’sdeTrinitate,
thechiefaccountofthepsychologyofthehumanpersonthatmakessuchanordinationpossiblehas
beenbasedontheperceptionofthehumanbeingasanimagodei. Godisthreepersonsinonenature,
Augustinewrites, Father, Son, andHolySpirit. ManismadeinGod’simage, butnotinthesense
ofaphysicalimage. Rather, man’ssoulistheimageofGodspecificallyasspiritualorintellectual.
Augustineexaminesthevarious“parts”ofthatindivisibleunitythatisthehumanmindandsettles
uponthreedistinguishableaspectsofitthatanalogicallymanifesttheabsolutetriunebeingofGod.
My mind is one, but, in it, I find memory, understanding, and will ([26], pp. 298–99).
Everythingthatisinmymindisinmymemory.Butmymindisnotmerelyawarehouseofitems.Some
thingsthatIcancallbeforemymindIknowinside-and-out;somethingsIcanreflectuponwithlesser
clarity;andsomethingsIcanseeinmymemorythoughtheyremain,forthemoment,impermeableto
myreasoning. Therefore,Imusthavealsoapowerofunderstandingdistinctfrommemory. Whatis
more,Ichoosetothinkaboutsomethings,andignoreothers;somethings,broughtbeforemymind’s
eyerepulseme,whilesomearesowonderfulthattheycompelmeintomovement,drawingmehither
(theassentofthemindprimarily,butalsothemovementofthewholeselftowardsomeend). Andso,
mymindmustalsohaveawill,acapacitytomovetowardthatwhichtheunderstandingapprovesin
thememoryasgood.
Augustine’sfacultypsychologywaschieflydescriptiveandspeculative—hewantedtoaccount
forwhatweactuallyexperiencewhenwethink,andhewantedtoresolveinwhatrespectitwastrue
that“Godcreatedmaninhisimage”(Genesis1:27). Butitcontainedagerminalpracticaldimension
thatwouldfindelaborationintheChristianspiritualityofthecomingcenturies. Medievaltheologians,
suchasSt. Bonaventure,elaboratedAugustine’sTrinitarianimageoftheintellectintoitineraria,works
oftheologydistilledspecificallyforpurposesofspiritualexercise,guidingthesoulonajourneytoward
unionwithGod[27].
Martz’s theory attempted to demonstrate the diffusion of such thinking into the modern age.
InthewakeoftheProtestantReformation,suchtechniquesforthelifeofprayerweredisseminated
beyondthewallsofthemonasteriesinseveralforms,themostinfluentialofwhichareTheSpiritual
Religions2017,8,10 8of19
Exercises (1522–1524) of St. Ignatius of Loyola and St. Francis de Sales’ Introduction to the Devout
Life(1609)[28,29]. LoyolaanddeSalesbothdevelopedandpopularizedtechniquesofmeditation
andcontemplationthatdrewthespeculativeachievementsofAugustine’spsychologyintoChristian
practice. Intheirdistinctbutcloselyrelatedmethods,onefindsthenoviceatmeditationinstructed
to begin by putting himself in the presence of God ([29], p. 73). Then, he should summon to the
memory a vivid scene or clear doctrinal statement: the image of Christ on the cross at Golgatha,
for instance, or that of ourselves lying prostrate on our death beds. This they generally call the
“compositionofplace,”andprovidepointsintendedtostimulateinthememoryavivid,sensuous
imagination([29],p.76). Havingseenwiththeinterioreyeofmemorysuchascene,theunderstanding
mustgiveit“consideration,”reflectingonittodrawtruthsfromit([29],p. 77). And,subsequently,the
noviceistoreorderorconformhiswilltothatunderstandingin“affectionandresolution”([29],p. 77).
Thisprocessionfrommemorytounderstandingtowillconcludesindifferentways,dependingonthe
spiritualauthority. ForFrancis,wemayofferfinalthanksorconfessiontoGod,followedbyaspiritual
bouquet([29],pp. 41–61). ForIgnatius,themeditationconcludesinakindofinteriordramatization
calledthecolloquy([28],pp. 138,140). Here,themindturnstoanotherinteriortoitselfsothatitcan
undertakedialecticandarriveattruth. Thismayconsistofpartsofthemindaddressingoneanother
oritmayinvolvedirect,interiorspeechwithChristhimself.
Whilethemodernlyrictraditionthatbeginsintherenaissancehasseveraloriginsandattributes,
thistripartiteformofprayerfulmeditation—imaginingascene(memory),reflectingonitssignificance
(understanding), and reordering the affections (will) accordingly—is perhaps the most universal
and conspicuous. It gives shape or otherwise informs most of the short poems that have been
written since the beginning of the modern age. And with good reason, for such a structure is at
oncelogicalandversatile.Itrootsthemindintheconcrete, butalsoprovidesspacefortheroving
intellectandthemovementsofthewilltocometotermswiththemostindividuatedreality. Itallows
the personal to be seen, by way of reflection, in light of the universal, and the immanent in the
contextofthetranscendent. Further,itseemstoacknowledgewhatAugustinetellsusisanessential
humanneed,notonlytounderstandourselvesbuttojudgesuchtruthsasweperceiveinthescales
ofgoodness. Howeverconventionalitsmovementsmayappearintheabstract—composetheplace,
reflect,resolve—Augustinewascorrectthattheyconformto,andinform,thenaturalinclinationsof
thehumansoul.
Martz’s study draws on the archive of early medieval and early-modern popular works of
spirituality,rhetoric,andlogic,toshowthatthefacultypsychologyitarticulatesgivesbirthtothe
self-dramatizing meditative lyrics of the late renaissance. His later work would suggest that the
meditative form is not a genre or a single historical phenomenon, but a generally available set of
conventionsthatmakespossiblearichbodyoflyricpoems. Althoughheneverfullyresolvedthe
scopeofhisclaims,hisworkseemstosuggestthismeditativeforminfluencespoetsotherwiseignorant
ofChristianspiritualpracticespreciselybecausetheyalready—wealready—shareinthefundamental
anthropologicalpremisesthatmakerational,prayerful,andpoeticreflectionasourceofinsightabout
ourselvesandthetruthasawhole. Suchconventionalpractices,hewrites,
satisfiedanddevelopedanatural,fundamentaltendencyofthehumanmind—atendency
toworkfromaparticularsituation,throughanalysisofthatsituation,andfinallytosome
sortofresolutionoftheproblemswhichthesituationhaspresented. ([11],p. 39)
Forthisreason,IclaimedthatOlson’srejectionofthemeditativelyricwasmorethanjustoneof
layingbyexhaustedartisticconventions,andthatBishop,incriticizingtheconfessionalpoetswas
infactdefendingavaluableinheritance. Themeditativelyriclendssystematicformtoself-scrutiny
such that it becomes a contemplation of the life, order, and destiny of the soul. The conventions
of confessional poetry often—though not always—reduce the study of the soul to a fragmentary
exerciseinself-exposure,whereinnotthestructureanddestinyofthesoulbutthemerecontentof
thecontingentlyformedselfbecomesthetrueobjectofinterest. Incontrast,thetheologicalfaculty
psychologythatgaverisetothemeditativelyricasamediumforknowingandlovingGodtendsto
Religions2017,8,10 9of19
givetothepoemadepththatmaybeunderstoodasamoraldimension(regardingthestateofthesoul)
thatisfinallyrootedinamoreorlessimplicittheology(thedivineassourceandstandardofourmoral
self-understanding). Forthisreason,Bishop’sembraceofthemeditativelyricnotonlyleadsherpoems
toexceedthecomparatively“secular”poetryoftheeyebuttoremainambiguouslybutcompellingly
opentothesupernaturalorderofGod’sgracethatgivesformandmeaningtoournaturalexperience.
HerChristianreadershavesensedthis—perhapsmorethanBishopdidherself.
4. Bishop’sMeditationsinaSecularAge
Ifthepoetryofmeditationissonatural,ubiquitous,enduring,andcapacious,onemayreasonably
wonderhowithelpsusdistinguishBishop’sworkfromthatofanyotherpoet. Ifonemayfindtraces
oftheChristiantechniquesofmeditationinallpoetrythathasnot,asinthecaseofOlson,attempted
violentlytobreakwiththemasiftheywerefalsifyingandoppressive, thenwhyshouldChristian
readersandscholarssofrequentlyrepairtoBishopasasubjectofenthusiasmandstudy?
Not, of course, because Bishop was herself a Christian. “I have never been religious in any
formalwayandIamnotabeliever,”shewrotetoAnnStevensonin1964. “Idislikethedidacticism,
nottosaythecondescension, ofthepracticingChristiansIknow...Theyusuallyseemmoreorless
on the way to being fascists.” But she continues: “I enjoy reading, say, St. Theresa, very much,
and Kierkegaard” ([18], p. 861). St. Theresa of Avila towers among the early modern teachers of
meditativeprayerandthedevoutlife;Kierkegaard,notincidentally,wastheChristianthinkerwho
mostcompellinglyreconfigured,forthemodernimagination,thefocusofthesoul’ssearchforsalvation
andpeaceinGodtoitsgrapplingwiththefactofitsownexistence. Muchofthepossibilityofthe
meditativelyricliesinnucewithintheirworks.
BishopwasnotevidentlywellversedinthebroaderChristianspiritualtradition,butsheread
selectively and with devotion. More than twenty years earlier (1942), she replied to a letter from
MarianneMooreregardingsomebooksofmodernpsychology,whichemphasizedthetherapeutic
purposeofthelifeofthemindallfortheendof“self-adjustment”inasecularsociety.Bishopobserved,
“I had infinitely rather approach such things from the Christian viewpoint myself—the trouble is
I’ve never been able to find the books, except Herbert” ([18], p. 752). In such a terse statement
lies a rich distinction. Bishop was an unbelieving intellectual in a self-consciously secular age;
elsewhere in her letter to Stevenson, she expressed the typical liberal pieties one might expect of
aVassar-educated,cosmopolitanpoetinthenineteen-sixties.8 Productofhertimethoughshewas,
she saw that its supposed attentiveness to the nuances of the inner life, as exemplified by the rise
ofmodernpsychoanalysis,didnotnecessarilymeanthesecularagehadfoundasuperiormeansto
self-knowledgeandcontemplationthanthatfoundintheChristiantradition. Withitstherapeutic
aims,modernpsychologywasgenuinely“secular,”concernedonlywiththeadjustmentoftheself’s
immanentexperience. TheChristianityshecannotembraceinsisted,tothecontrary,thatmorallife
involvedaconformityoftheselftoanorderthattranscendsallthings,thesoulasimageofGodmust
behealedandpurifiedpreciselyasimage.
Itcomesasnosurprise,then,toseethatBishop’sfavoritepoetsincludedGerardManleyHopkins,
CharlesBaudelaire,EmilyDickinson,andespeciallyGeorgeHerbert([18],p. 703). Allthesepoets,save
Baudelaire,areknownforwhatBishopwouldcalla“useofhomelyimagesand...solidity”([18],p.690),
thatis,anattentiontothepeculiaritiesoftheconcretethatfindsexpressioninapeculiarityofphrasing.
OneofBishop’swritingsonMarianneMooreconsistsofacatalogueofsuchphrases,demonstrating
how“concrete”phrasingdrawsforthconcreteimagesinthememory([18],pp. 729–30). S.T.Coleridge
8 OnBishop’scontemptuousremarksregardingChristians—aftershesaystheyareonthewaytobeing“fascists”,shenotes,
“IamappalledbytheCatholicism,orlackofit,inthisCatholiccountry[Brazil],”andthenmakestheostensiblygenerous
concession,“therehavebeensomegoodChristians!”([18],pp.861–62)—Walkerjustlycomments,“onesometimesfeelsthat
shedothprotesttoomuch”([4],p.19).
Religions2017,8,10 10of19
andT.S.EliotbothparticularlyprizedHerbertforsuchimagery,offeringtheselinesasstrikingintheir
homelyandmodestuseofmetaphor:
AndnowinageIbudagain,
AftersomanydeathsIliveandwrite;
Ioncemoresmellthedewandrain,
Andrelishversing...([30],p. 162)
The poets of Coleridge’s age would have yet again mounted the winged horse, or heard the
Aeolianharp;howhonestandhumbleforapoetsimplytostatethathehascomeoncemoreto“relish
versing”([31],p. 368).
Of these writers, all but Baudelaire was an expressly Christian devotional poet. Martz has
argued that Herbert drew directly on the Introduction of Francis de Sales ([11], pp. 249–59), while
Hopkins’journalsshowthatthenoteshetookwhilemakinghisretreats(duringwhichtheJesuits
andtheirchargesundertakeLoyola’sspiritualexercises)werefunneleddirectlyintothelinesofhis
poems. And,inBishop’sday,Eliot’sinterpretationofBaudelaireasaChristianintendency—owing
asmuchtotheself-laceratingcontemplationofthemysteryofevilinJosephdeMaistre’sLesSoirées
deSt. Pétersbourg(1821)ashedidtothefortuitousnoveltyofthemoderncity—wascontestedbut
widespread([32],pp. 337–38). ToinvokeBaudelairewastoconjurethoughtsofmoralandreligious
seriousnessinadecadentage. Asimportantly,allfourwrotemeditativelyricsinwhichthemovement
betweentheconcreteimageandthemoralunderstandingisespeciallyobvious. Inparticular,Herbert’s
constantself-scrutinyregardinghissinfulness,hisforgetful“unkindness”toGod,andhismiserable
waitingfortherewardsofsalvationthatseemalmostinfinitelydeferred,wasBishop’scompanion,
shewrote,“almostallmylife”([18],p. 861).
Onthewhole,Bishopabsorbedtheformalstructuresandthematicemphasesoftheirpoemsmore
than she did their phrasing (which owes much to Moore). In this respect, she stands athwart the
practiceofmanyofherandourcontemporaries,whooftenindulgeintheCelticalliteration,syntactical
play,andeccentricrhymeofHopkinsandDickinsonwithoutretainingthemoresubstantivefeatures
oftheirpoetry. Moreover,sheembracesthesestructuresinthecontextofherownagnosticsensibility.
Bythis,Imeantwothings. Herbert’sscrutinyaboutthestateofhissoulinservicetoGodisloosenedto
ageneralpracticeofmoralreflection. Hisinsistentdevotionisrenderedasilent,unbelievingopenness
totheunnameddivinitythatsubtendsthatmoralreflection.
S.T.Coleridgeoncereflected,inhisnotebooks,ontheunpopularityofGeorgeHerbertinmodern
timesanddrewaconclusionrelevanttoBishop’spractice. Herbert’sbookofpoemshadbeenreprinted
many times in the seventeenth century, Coleridge observed, but had ceased to be much admired
thereafter. ColeridgehadnothimselfthoughtmuchofHerbertinhisyouth,buthadlatercometo
cherishthepoemsofTheTemple. “Icannotavoiddrawingtheconclusion,”notedColeridge,“there
musthavebeenmorereligiousexperience,moreseriousinterestintheChristianFaithasabusiness-like
ConcernofeachIndividual[inHerbert’sday], thanthereisatpresent”([31], p. 556). In1826, the
intelligent cared at most for the broad general truths of religion, but “When a man begins to be
interestedindetail,fromhourtohour,&feelsChristianityasaLife,aGrowth,aPilgrimagethro’ahostile
Country,” then he will come to love Herbert’s work ([31], p. 556). T.S. Eliot displayed a similar
growth in appreciation for Herbert: the essays written during the decade after his conversion to
Anglo-CatholicismacknowledgeHerbert,butrelegatehimtothe“minor”domainof“devotional”
poetry([33],p. 98). Andyet,Eliot’slastpublishedworkwasamundanebutadoringpamphletonthe
poetandpriest,whoselyricshadtakencentralplaceinEliot’saffections(ashiftperhapsanticipatedby
theallusiontoHerbertinEliot’sLittleGidding(1942)[34].
AllevidenceindicatesthatBishopdescriedthemoralseriousnessinHerbertamidthehomely
andsolidphrasesfromthebeginning. DespiteherinabilitytoshareintheChristianbeliefsofher
favoritepoets,shesensedthatthosebeliefshadmadepossibleamarveloustechniqueofintrospection
andmoralanalysis. Herbert’spoemsoffermeditationsonthesufferingsofChrist,andourguiltin