ELITE CONFIGURATIONS AND CLUSTERS OF POWER

396 Pages·2013·8.04 MB·English

by  Mehmet Karabela

ELITE CONFIGURATIONS AND CLUSTERS OF POWER:
THE ULEMA, WAQF, AND OTTOMAN STATE
(1789-1839)

by

Selim Argun
Institute of Islamic Studies
McGill University, Montréal
January, 2013

A thesis submitted to
the Faculty of Graduate Studies and
Research, McGill University, Montréal
in partial fulfillment of the requirements for
the degree of Doctor of Philosophy

© Selim Argun 2013
ﻭ (wāw), the twenty-seventh letter of the Arabic alphabet is considered to have
mystical qualities. A saintly saying warns the faithful against words that begin
with this letter by drawing attention to the sense of heavy responsibility and
perils of accountability attached to their meanings. For example, waqf (religious
endowment), waṣāyah (will/trusteeship), wirāthah (inheritance), wakālah (legal
representation), wadīah (entrustment), wizārah (ministry), are words one must
approach with utmost care when using them in his/her daily life. It is even
recommended that one should refrain from seeking a career in these
professions.
There is, however, even more to say about the mystery of the wāw.
According to the discipline of ebced,1 the numerical value of this letter is 6 and
0F
the pair of two wāws (66) are equal to the words Allah and Lale (tulip) in its
arithmetical sense. This is why the two figures are often mixed in Ottoman
architectural designs and decorative ornamentations. Moreover, the purpose of
the two facing wāws engraved above the shortened door of imperial loges of

1 The first of several mnemonic formulas designed to help one learn the numerical values
assigned to the letters of the Arabic alphabet.
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Ottoman mosques where the powerful Sultans performed their prayers in
seclusion, called hünkâr mahfili, was to remind them greatness of the Almighty
while they were forced to enter in a bowed position. This tradition has its roots
in the Sufi belief that while the upright letter alif symbolizes the obstinate part
of the human being, i.e., nafs, the curved-neck letter wāw represents the
submission of a dervish. Thus one who seeks happiness in this life finds it only
when he is in a wāw posture of complete humbleness. This is how he was when
he was in his mother’s womb or will be when dismisses all worldly temptations
and prostrates himself before his Creator. The only acceptable form of the alif
shape for a Sufi is when he is laid down strait in his grave.
I dedicate this work to the most important two wāws of my life: my late
father (wālid), Burhan Argun who devoted his entire life to raise his children as
morally sound intellectuals and to my mother (wālidah) Gönül Argun whose
loving selflessness continues to be my source of inspiration in my quest to
uncover the mystery of the letter wāw in my life journey.

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ABSTRACT

Title Elite configurations and clusters of power: The ulema, waqf, and
Ottoman state (1789-1839)
Author : Selim Argun
Department : Institute of Islamic Studies
Degree : Doctor of Philosophy

Through the prism of Richard Lachmann’s ‘elite conflict theory of historical
contingency,’ this dissertation brings a new perspective and a fresh
interpretation to the study of the attitudes of the Ottoman central ulema toward
the pre-Tanzimat Westernizing reforms. Contrary to the prevailing view of
intra-elite vertical dichotomy conflict as the primary basis for ulema reactions,
this research proposes inter-elite horizontal conflict as the root cause for the
failure of the reform initiatives. Moreover, this study challenges the commonly-
held belief that the goal of centralization of the revenues of religious
endowments by the ruling authority was to silence ulema opposition to the
Westernizing reforms. Instead, through a detailed examination of the evolution
of early European taxation models and fiscal centralization trajectories, this
research concludes that the Mahmudian centralization of awqaf should be seen,
rather, as an emulation of the wider eco-geographic trend in response to the
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historical challenges faced by European states and the Ottoman Empire. By
problematizing the prevailing nomenclature of Ottoman historiography, this
research clarifies the longstanding misconceptions attached to the term ‘ulema.’
Finally, through a comprehensive survey of waqf-elite relations, this study will
advance the understanding of the dynamics of the pre-Tanzimat Ottoman
Empire.

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RÉSUMÉ

Titre : Configurations de groupes d’élite et grappes de pouvoir : les oulemas,
le waqf, et l’État ottoman (1789-1839)
Auteur : Selim Argun
Faculté : Institut d’Études islamiques
Grade : Doctorat

À travers le prisme de la « théorie du conflit entre groupes d’élite et de la
contingence historique » élaborée par Richard Lachmann, la présente thèse
propose une nouvelle perspective ainsi qu’une nouvelle interprétation de
l’étude des attitudes des oulémas ottomans envers les réformes
occidentalisantes durant la période précédant l’adoption du Tanzimat. À
l’opposé de l’opinion dominante, qui voit dans les échanges entre groupes d’élite
un conflit à dichotomie verticale, cette recherche privilégie le principe
d’échanges en tant que conflit horizontal, pour expliquer l’échec des initiatives
de réforme lors de la période en question.
En outre, cette étude remet en question la représentation classique qui attribue
à la centralisation par l’autorité de l’État des recettes fiscales provenant des
fondations religieuses la raison principale de la suppression de l’opposition aux
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réformes chez les oulémas. Bien au contraire. Par le biais de l’examen détaillé de
l’évolution des premiers modèles de fiscalité européenne et les trajectoires de
centralisation budgétaire, la présente étude arrive à la conclusion que la
centralisation des awqaf pendant le règne du Sultan Mahmoud II fut plutôt le
résultat de l’émulation des tendances économiques et géopolitiques existantes à
l’époque en tant que réponse aux défis historiques auxquels se heurtèrent les
pays européens tout comme l’Empire ottoman. C’est en interpellant la
terminologie utilisée couramment dans l’historiographie ottomane que la
présente étude expose les idées infondées associée au libellé « oulémas. » Enfin,
grâce à une enquête approfondie sur les rapports entre waqf et groupes d’élite,
l’étude fera avancer la compréhension du dynamisme de l’Empire ottoman dans
la période qui précède l’adoption du Tanzimat.

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ACKNOWLEDGEMENTS
I would like first to express my deep gratitude and appreciation to my
supervisor Prof. A. Üner Turgay. His scholarly approach and thoughtful
mentorship has guided me since the beginning of this project many years ago.
Without his constant intellectual and moral support, this dissertation would not
have seen the light of day.
My co-supervisor Prof. Malek Abisaab and I spent hours together in his
office and at various cafes around McGill discussing a wide range of topics
related to my field. He kindly shared with me his extensive knowledge of the
delicacies of writing a PhD dissertation.
My other McGill professors Prof. Wael B. Hallaq and Prof. Eric Ormsby
taught me various aspects of Islamic law and Philosophy over the years. I owe
them special thanks for their guidance and friendship.
A number of Turkish scholars shaped my thinking and have had an
impact on my academic orientation. Prof. Ahmet Davutoğlu, who co-supervised
my Master’s research, encouraged me to pursue my doctoral studies at McGill
University. I am grateful to him for his insightful suggestion. At an earlier stage
in my academic life, Prof. Murat Çizakça invited me to Bursa for İskender Kebabı
and while eating in a small century-and-a-half old restaurant near the Ulu Cami,
he advised me to devote my academic career to the study the Ottoman waqf
institution. I spent weeks if not months at İSAM, possibly the best research
center in Istanbul, enjoying the scholarly advice of Professors Kemal Beydilli,
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Mehmet İpşirli, Mehmet Genç, Ali Akyıldız, Ahmet Tabakoğlu, İsmail Kara,
Asc.Prof.Yüksel Çelik and Asc. Prof. Erhan Afyoncu. They were all very helpful in
guiding me to various books, concepts, articles and scholarly works. I must
especially single out Prof. Beydilli for his erudite knowledge and for sharing his
electronic library with me.
I thank both Prof. Mustafa Aykaç and Prof. Hikmet Özdemir who are
rectors and chairmen of the board of governors of their respective universities
for their help and support at various stages of my work throughout the years.
Dr. Nazif Öztürk hosted me several times in Ankara and shared his
extensive knowledge of the waqf archives. Prof. İhsan Fazlıoğlu generously
shared his erudition and academic resources with me whenever I asked him.
I am most indebted to Prof. Erol Özvar for introducing me to the world of
theories both in the field of historical sociology and economic history. Through
a number of lengthy Skype meetings from his Harvard office, he patiently
answered all my questions, read my chapters and with his incisive comments
and suggestions over the years, inspired my work in more ways than one.
My dear friend, award-winning translator, journalist and author Fred A.
Reed edited all my writings. He and his wife Ingeborg shared many
unforgettable familial gatherings and intellectual feasts with us. I can’t thank
them enough for being who they are and what it means for us as a family. Dr.
Charles Fletcher was there whenever I needed his editorial skills and stylistic
advice. I thank him for his fast and painstaking editing.
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Several libraries assisted me in my research. I thank the staff of the
Center for Islamic Studies (İSAM), especially Dr. Kamil Yaşaroğlu, the
Süleymaniye Library (Mr. Emir Eş), the staff of the Ottoman Archives
(Başbakanlık Osmanlı Arşivleri), and staff of the Institute of Islamic Studies Library
for their help and support throughout the years.
I would like to thank Dr. Coşkun Yılmaz, Project Manager and editor of
the books III. Selim2 and II. Mahmud3 for providing the illustrations and photos
used in the dissertation.
I am grateful to the Institute of Islamic Studies for providing partial
funding for my research. I also acknowledge that for many years the Institute
granted me opportunities to teach Arabic and Turkish, thus allowing me to gain
some teaching experience while funding my research.
Prof. Bilal Kuşpınar, Prof. Atilla Arkan, Dr. Mehmet Karabela, and Ahmed
Faizal Ebrahim, read some chapters and shared their insightful comments and
recommendations. Hasan Umut helped me to solve hairsplitting aspects of the
footnotes and bibliographical entries.
A word of thanks is due to a friend from the high steps of Eastern
Turkistan, Habibullah Rouzmati who was kind enough to knock on my door and
offer his help to do my errands allowing me to save time to concentrate on my
studies. I thank him for his thoughtfulness.

2 Coşkun Yılmaz, ed., III. Selim: Istanbul at a Turning Point between Two Centuries (İstanbul: İstanbul
Avrupa Kültür Başkenti, 2010).
3 Coşkun Yılmaz, ed., II. Mahmud: Istanbul in the Process of Being Rebuilt (İstanbul: İstanbul Avrupa
Kültür Başkenti, 2010).

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