Elements of ecology PDF
Preview Elements of ecology
globAl globAl EdiTioN EdiTioN Eg dl iTo iobA Nl E For these global Editions, the editorial team at Pearson has l e collaborated with educators across the world to address a wide range m of subjects and requirements, equipping students with the best possible e n learning tools. This global Edition preserves the cutting-edge approach t s and pedagogy of the original, but also features alterations, customization, o and adaptation from the North American version. f E c o l o g y N i N T h E d i T i o N S m i t h • S m i t h This is a special edition of an established title widely Elements of Ecology used by colleges and universities throughout the world. Pearson published this exclusive edition for the benefit of students outside the United States and canada. if you NiNTh EdiTioN purchased this book within the United States or canada, you should be aware that it has been imported without Thomas M. Smith • Robert Leo Smith the approval of the Publisher or Author. Pearson Global Edition Smith_1292077409_mech.indd 1 16/02/15 5:53 PM Brief Contents Preface 13 Chapter 1 the nature of ecology 17 Part 1 The Physical environmenT Chapter 2 Climate 32 Chapter 3 the Aquatic environment 51 Chapter 4 the terrestrial environment 68 Part 2 The organism and iTs environmenT Chapter 5 Adaptation and natural selection 85 Chapter 6 Plant Adaptations to the environment 109 Chapter 7 Animal Adaptations to the environment 139 Part 3 PoPulaTions Chapter 8 Properties of Populations 167 Chapter 9 Population Growth 188 Chapter 10 Life History 208 Chapter 11 intraspecific Population regulation 235 Part 4 sPecies inTeracTions Chapter 12 species interactions, Population Dynamics, and natural selection 259 Chapter 13 interspecific Competition 278 Chapter 14 Predation 301 Chapter 15 Parasitism and Mutualism 330 Part 5 communiTy ecology Chapter 16 Community structure 352 Chapter 17 factors influencing the structure of Communities 376 Chapter 18 Community Dynamics 401 Chapter 19 Landscape Dynamics 426 Part 6 ecosysTem ecology Chapter 20 ecosystem energetics 455 Chapter 21 Decomposition and nutrient Cycling 480 Chapter 22 Biogeochemical Cycles 509 Part 7 ecological BiogeograPhy Chapter 23 terrestrial ecosystems 526 Chapter 24 Aquatic ecosystems 555 Chapter 25 Coastal and Wetland ecosystems 577 Chapter 26 Large-scale Patterns of Biological Diversity 591 Chapter 27 the ecology of Climate Change 608 References 639 Glossary 657 Credits 673 Index 683 Smith_1292077409_ifc.indd 1 16/02/15 6:03 PM E l E m E n t s o f Ecology ninth Edition Global Edition Thomas M. Smith University of Virginia Robert Leo Smith West Virginia University, Emeritus Boston Columbus Indianapolis New York San Francisco Upper Saddle River Amsterdam Cape Town Dubai London Madrid Milan Munich Paris Montréal Toronto Delhi Mexico City São Paulo Sydney Hong Kong Seoul Singapore Taipei Tokyo A01_SMIT7406_09_GE_FM.INDD 1 20/02/15 4:09 PM Senior Acquisitions Editor: Star MacKenzie Burruto Project Manager: Margaret Young Program Manager: Anna Amato Editorial Assistant: Maja Sidzinska Text Permissions Project Manager: William Opaluch Executive Editorial Manager: Ginnie Simione-Jutson Program Management Team Lead: Michael Early Project Management Team Lead: David Zielonka Publishing Administrator and Business Analyst, Global Edition: Shokhi Shah Khandelwal Acquisitions Editor, Global Edition: Priyanka Ahuja Assitant Project Editor, Global Edition: Sinjita Basu Media Production Manager, Global Edition: Vikram Kumar Senior Manufacturing Controller, Production, Global Edition: Trudy Kimber Design Manager: Derek Bacchus Photo Permissions Management: Lumina Datamatics Photo Research: Steve Merland, Lumina Datamatics Photo Lead: Donna Kalal Manufacturing Buyer: Stacey Weinberger Executive Marketing Manager: Lauren Harp Full-Service Project Management: Integra Cover Photo Source: Shutterstock Cover Printer: CTPS China Pearson Education Limited Edinburgh Gate Harlow Essex CM20 2JE England and Associated Companies throughout the world Visit us on the World Wide Web at: www.pearsonglobaleditions.com © Pearson Education Limited 2015 The rights of Thomas M. Smith and Robert Leo Smith to be identified as the authors of this work have been asserted by them in accordance with the Copyright, Designs and Patents Act 1988. Authorized adaptation from the United States edition, entitled Elements of Ecology, 9th edition, ISBN 978-0-321-93418-5, by Thomas M. Smith and Robert Leo Smith, published by Pearson Education © 2015. All rights reserved. No part of this publication may be reproduced, stored in a retrieval system, or transmitted in any form or by any means, electronic, mechanical, photocopying, recording or otherwise, withouteither the prior written permission of the publisher or a license permitting restricted copying in the United Kingdom issued by the Copyright Licensing Agency Ltd, Saffron House, 6–10 Kirby Street, London EC1N 8TS. All trademarks used herein are the property of their respective owners.The use of any trademark in this text does not vest in the author or pub- lisher any trademark ownership rights in such trademarks, nor does the use of such trademarks imply any affiliation with or endorsement of this book by such owners. ISBN 10: 1-292-07740-9 ISBN 13: 978-1-292-07740-6 British Library Cataloguing-in-Publication Data A catalogue record for this book is available from the British Library. 10 9 8 7 6 5 4 3 2 1 14 13 12 11 10 Typeset in Times LT Std 10 by Integra. Printed and bound in China at CTPSC/01. A01_SMIT7406_09_GE_FM.INDD 2 20/02/15 4:09 PM ContEnts Preface 13 2.7 Proximity to the Coastline Influences Climate 41 R pTE 1 the nature of Ecology 17 2.8 Topography Influences Regional and Local a ch Patterns of Climate 42 1.1 Ecology Is the Study of the Relationship 2.9 Irregular Variations in Climate Occur at the between Organisms and Their Regional Scale 43 Environment 18 2.10 Most Organisms Live in Microclimates 44 1.2 Organisms Interact with the Environment in the Context of the Ecosystem 18 ■ EcoLogicaL iSSuES & appLicaTionS: Rising atmospheric concentrations of 1.3 Ecological Systems Form a Hierarchy 19 greenhouse gases are altering Earth’s 1.4 Ecologists Study Pattern and Process at climate 46 Many Levels 20 Summary 49 • Study Questions 50 1.5 Ecologists Investigate Nature Using the • Further Readings 50 Scientific Method 21 ■ QuantiFying Ecology 1.1: classifying Ecological Data 23 R ■ QuantiFying Ecology 1.2: pTE 3 the Aquatic Environment 51 a Displaying Ecological Data: histograms h c 3.1 Water Cycles between Earth and the and Scatter Plots 24 Atmosphere 52 1.6 Models Provide a Basis for 3.2 Water Has Important Physical Predictions 26 Properties 53 1.7 Uncertainty Is an Inherent Feature of 3.3 Light Varies with Depth in Aquatic Science 26 Environments 55 1.8 Ecology Has Strong Ties to Other 3.4 Temperature Varies with Water Depth 56 Disciplines 27 1.9 The Individual Is the Basic Unit of 3.5 Water Functions as a Solvent 57 Ecology 27 3.6 Oxygen Diffuses from the Atmosphere to ■ EcoLogicaL iSSuES & appLicaTionS: the Surface Waters 58 Ecology has a Rich history 28 3.7 Acidity Has a Widespread Influence on Summary 30 • Study Questions 31 Aquatic Environments 60 • Further Readings 31 3.8 Water Movements Shape Freshwater and Marine Environments 61 3.9 Tides Dominate the Marine Coastal PART 1 thE PhySical Environment 62 EnviRonMEnT 3.10 The Transition Zone between Freshwater and Saltwater Environments Presents R TE 2 Unique Constraints 63 p Climate 32 a h ■ EcoLogicaL iSSuES & appLicaTionS: c 2.1 Surface Temperatures Reflect the Rising atmospheric concentrations of Difference between Incoming and co are impacting ocean acidity 64 2 Outgoing Radiation 33 Summary 66 • Study Questions 67 2.2 Intercepted Solar Radiation and Surface • Further Readings 67 Temperatures Vary Seasonally 35 2.3 Geographic Difference in Surface Net Radiation Result in Global Patterns of R TE 4 Atmospheric Circulation 35 p the terrestrial Environment 68 a h 2.4 Surface Winds and Earth’s Rotation Create c 4.1 Life on Land Imposes Unique Ocean Currents 38 Constraints 69 2.5 Temperature Influences the Moisture 4.2 Plant Cover Influences the Vertical Content of Air 39 Distribution of Light 70 2.6 Precipitation Has a Distinctive Global ■ QuantiFying Ecology 4.1: Beer’s Pattern 40 law and the attenuation of light 72 3 A01_SMIT7406_09_GE_FM.INDD 3 20/02/15 4:09 PM 4.3 Soil Is the Foundation upon which All R Terrestrial Life Depends 74 pTE 6 Plant Adaptations to the a h 4.4 The Formation of Soil Begins with c Environment 109 Weathering 74 6.1 Photosynthesis Is the Conversion of 4.5 Soil Formation Involves Five Interrelated Carbon Dioxide into Simple Sugars 110 Factors 74 6.2 The Light a Plant Receives Affects Its 4.6 Soils Have Certain Distinguishing Physical Photosynthetic Activity 111 Characteristics 75 6.3 Photosynthesis Involves Exchanges 4.7 The Soil Body Has Horizontal Layers or between the Plant and Atmosphere 112 Horizons 76 6.4 Water Moves from the Soil, through the 4.8 Moisture-Holding Capacity Is an Essential Plant, to the Atmosphere 112 Feature of Soils 77 6.5 The Process of Carbon Uptake Differs for 4.9 Ion Exchange Capacity Is Important to Soil Aquatic and Terrestrial Autotrophs 115 Fertility 77 6.6 Plant Temperatures Reflect Their 4.10 Basic Soil Formation Processes Produce Energy Balance with the Surrounding Different Soils 78 Environment 115 ■ EcoLogicaL iSSuES & appLicaTionS: 6.7 Constraints Imposed by the Physical Soil Erosion is a Threat to agricultural Environment Have Resulted in a Wide Sustainability 80 Array of Plant Adaptations 116 Summary 83 • Study Questions 84 6.8 Species of Plants Are Adapted to Different • Further Readings 84 Light Environments 117 ■ FiEld StudiES: Kaoru Kitajima 118 PART 2 ThE oRganiSM anD iTS ■ QuantiFying Ecology 6.1: Relative EnviRonMEnT growth Rate 122 6.9 The Link between Water Demand TER 5 and Temperature Influences Plant ap Adaptation and natural Adaptations 123 h c selection 85 6.10 Plants Exhibit Both Acclimation and 5.1 Adaptations Are a Product of Natural Adaptation in Response to Variations in Selection 86 Environmental Temperatures 128 5.2 Genes Are the Units of Inheritance 87 6.11 Plants Exhibit Adaptations to Variations in Nutrient Availability 130 5.3 The Phenotype Is the Physical Expression of the Genotype 87 6.12 Plant Adaptations to the Environment Reflect a Trade-off between Growth Rate 5.4 The Expression of Most Phenotypic Traits and Tolerance 132 Is Affected by the Environment 88 ■ EcoLogicaL iSSuES & appLicaTionS: 5.5 Genetic Variation Occurs at the Level of Plants Respond to increasing the Population 90 atmospheric co 133 2 5.6 Adaptation Is a Product of Evolution by Summary 136 • Study Questions 137 Natural Selection 91 • Further Readings 138 5.7 Several Processes Other than Natural Selection Can Function to Alter Patterns of Genetic Variation within Populations 94 R 5.8 Natural Selection Can Result in Genetic pTE 7 Animal Adaptations to the a Differentiation 95 ch Environment 139 ■ QuantiFying Ecology 5.1: hardy– 7.1 Size Imposes a Fundamental Constraint on Weinberg principle 96 the Evolution of Organisms 140 ■ FiEld StudiES: hopi hoekstra 100 7.2 Animals Have Various Ways of Acquiring 5.9 Adaptations Reflect Trade-offs and Energy and Nutrients 143 Constraints 102 7.3 In Responding to Variations in the External ■ EcoLogicaL iSSuES & appLicaTionS: genetic Engineering allows humans to Environment, Animals Can Be either Manipulate a Species’ dna 104 Conformers or Regulators 144 Summary 106 • Study Questions 107 7.4 Regulation of Internal Conditions Involves • Further Readings 108 Homeostasis and Feedback 145 4 A01_SMIT7406_09_GE_FM.INDD 4 20/02/15 4:09 PM ■ FiEld StudiES: Martin Wikelski 146 ■ EcoLogicaL iSSuES & appLicaTionS: humans aid in the dispersal of Many 7.5 Animals Require Oxygen to Release Species, Expanding their geographic Energy Contained in Food 148 Range 183 7.6 Animals Maintain a Balance between the Summary 186 • Study Questions 186 Uptake and Loss of Water 149 • Further Readings 187 7.7 Animals Exchange Energy with Their Surrounding Environment 151 R 7.8 Animal Body Temperature pTE 9 Population Growth 188 a Reflects Different Modes of ch 9.1 Population Growth Reflects the Difference Thermoregulation 152 between Rates of Birth and Death 189 7.9 Poikilotherms Regulate Body 9.2 Life Tables Provide a Schedule of Age- Temperature Primarily through Behavioral Specific Mortality and Survival 191 Mechanisms 153 ■ QuantiFying Ecology 9.1: Life 7.10 Homeotherms Regulate Body Expectancy 193 Temperature through Metabolic 9.3 Different Types of Life Tables Reflect Processes 156 Different Approaches to Defining Cohorts 7.11 Endothermy and Ectothermy Involve and Age Structure 193 Trade-offs 157 9.4 Life Tables Provide Data for Mortality and 7.12 Heterotherms Take on Characteristics of Survivorship Curves 194 Ectotherms and Endotherms 158 9.5 Birthrate Is Age-Specific 196 7.13 Some Animals Use Unique Physiological 9.6 Birthrate and Survivorship Determine Net Means for Thermal Balance 159 Reproductive Rate 196 7.14 An Animal’s Habitat Reflects a 9.7 Age-Specific Mortality and Birthrates Wide Variety of Adaptations to the Can Be Used to Project Population Environment 161 Growth 197 ■ EcoLogicaL iSSuES & appLicaTionS: ■ QuantiFying Ecology 9.2: Life increasing global Temperature is history diagrams and Population affecting the Body Size of animals 162 projection Matrices 199 Summary 164 • Study Questions 165 9.8 Stochastic Processes Can Influence • Further Readings 166 Population Dynamics 201 9.9 A Variety of Factors Can Lead to Population Extinction 201 PART 3 popuLaTionS ■ EcoLogicaL iSSuES & appLicaTionS: the leading cause of current TER 8 Population declines and Extinctions is ap Properties of Populations 167 habitat loss 202 h c 8.1 Organisms May Be Unitary or Summary 206 • Study Questions 207 Modular 168 • Further Readings 207 8.2 The Distribution of a Population Defines Its Spatial Location 169 R TE 10 ■ FiEld StudiES: Filipe alberto 170 ap life History 208 h c 8.3 Abundance Reflects Population Density 10.1 The Evolution of Life Histories Involves and Distribution 174 Trade-offs 209 8.4 Determining Density Requires 10.2 Reproduction May Be Sexual or Sampling 176 Asexual 209 8.5 Measures of Population Structure 10.3 Sexual Reproduction Takes a Variety of Include Age, Developmental Stage, and Forms 210 Size 178 10.4 Reproduction Involves Both Benefits and 8.6 Sex Ratios in Populations May Shift with Costs to Individual Fitness 211 Age 180 10.5 Age at Maturity Is Influenced by Patterns 8.7 Individuals Move within the of Age-Specific Mortality 212 Population 181 10.6 Reproductive Effort Is Governed by 8.8 Population Distribution and Density Trade-offs between Fecundity and Change in Both Time and Space 182 Survival 215 5 A01_SMIT7406_09_GE_FM.INDD 5 20/02/15 4:09 PM 10.7 There Is a Trade-off between the 11.10 Territoriality Can Function to Regulate Number and Size of Offspring 218 Population Growth 249 10.8 Species Differ in the Timing of 11.11 Plants Preempt Space and Reproduction 219 Resources 250 ■ QuantiFying Ecology 10.1: 11.12 A Form of Inverse Density Dependence interpreting trade-offs 220 Can Occur in Small Populations 251 10.9 An Individual’s Life History Represents 11.13 Density-Independent Factors Can the Interaction between Genotype and Influence Population Growth 253 the Environment 220 ■ EcoLogicaL iSSuES & appLicaTionS: 10.10 Mating Systems Describe the Pairing of The conservation of populations Males and Females 222 Requires an understanding of Minimum Viable Population Size and carrying 10.11 Acquisition of a Mate Involves Sexual capacity 255 Selection 224 Summary 256 • Study Questions 257 ■ FiEld StudiES: alexandra l. Basolo 226 • Further Readings 258 10.12 Females May Choose Mates Based on Resources 228 PART 4 SpEciES inTERacTionS 10.13 Patterns of Life History Characteristics Reflect External Selective Forces 229 R ■ EcoLogicaL iSSuES & appLicaTionS: TE 12 p species Interactions, Population The Life history of the human ha c Population Reflects technological and Dynamics, and natural cultural changes 231 selection 259 Summary 233 • Study Questions 234 12.1 Species Interactions Can Be Classified • Further Readings 234 Based on Their Reciprocal Effects 260 12.2 Species Interactions Influence Population Dynamics 261 R ■ QuantiFying Ecology 12.1: pTE 11 Intraspecific Population incorporating competitive interactions a h in Models of Population growth 263 c Regulation 235 12.3 Species Interactions Can Function as 11.1 The Environment Functions to Limit Agents of Natural Selection 263 Population Growth 236 12.4 The Nature of Species Interactions ■ QuantiFying Ecology 11.1: Can Vary across Geographic Defining the carrying capacity (K) 237 Landscapes 267 ■ QuantiFying Ecology 11.2: 12.5 Species Interactions Can Be Diffuse 268 the logistic Model of Population 12.6 Species Interactions Influence the growth 238 Species’ Niche 270 11.2 Population Regulation Involves Density Dependence 238 12.7 Species Interactions Can Drive Adaptive Radiation 272 11.3 Competition Results When Resources Are Limited 239 ■ EcoLogicaL iSSuES & appLicaTionS: urbanization has negatively impacted 11.4 Intraspecific Competition Affects Growth Most Species while Favoring a and Development 239 Few 273 11.5 Intraspecific Competition Can Influence Summary 275 • Study Questions 276 Mortality Rates 241 • Further Readings 276 11.6 Intraspecific Competition Can Reduce Reproduction 242 R TE 13 11.7 High Density Is Stressful to ap Interspecific Competition 278 h Individuals 244 c 13.1 Interspecific Competition Involves Two or ■ FiEld StudiES: T. Scott Sillett 246 More Species 279 11.8 Dispersal Can Be Density 13.2 The Combined Dynamics of Two Dependent 248 Competing Populations Can Be 11.9 Social Behavior May Function to Limit Examined Using the Lotka–Volterra Populations 248 Model 279 6 A01_SMIT7406_09_GE_FM.INDD 6 20/02/15 4:09 PM 13.3 There Are Four Possible Outcomes of 14.9 Coevolution Can Occur between Interspecific Competition 280 Predator and Prey 315 13.4 Laboratory Experiments Support the 14.10 Animal Prey Have Evolved Defenses Lotka–Volterra Model 282 against Predators 316 13.5 Studies Support the Competitive 14.11 Predators Have Evolved Efficient Exclusion Principle 283 Hunting Tactics 318 13.6 Competition Is Influenced by 14.12 Herbivores Prey on Autotrophs 319 Nonresource Factors 284 ■ FiEld StudiES: Rick a. Relyea 320 13.7 Temporal Variation in the 14.13 Plants Have Evolved Characteristics that Environment Influences Competitive Deter Herbivores 322 Interactions 285 14.14 Plants, Herbivores, and Carnivores 13.8 Competition Occurs for Multiple Interact 323 Resources 285 14.15 Predators Influence Prey Dynamics 13.9 Relative Competitive Abilities Change through Lethal and Nonlethal along Environmental Gradients 287 Effects 324 ■ QuantiFying Ecology 13.1: ■ EcoLogicaL iSSuES & appLicaTionS: competition under changing Sustainable harvest of natural Environmental conditions: application populations Requires Being a “Smart of the lotka–Volterra Model 290 Predator” 325 13.10 Interspecific Competition Influences the Summary 327 • Study Questions 328 Niche of a Species 291 • Further Readings 329 13.11 Coexistence of Species Often Involves Partitioning Available Resources 293 R TE 15 13.12 Competition Is a Complex Interaction ap Parasitism and mutualism 330 h Involving Biotic and Abiotic c 15.1 Parasites Draw Resources from Host Factors 296 Organisms 331 ■ EcoLogicaL iSSuES & appLicaTionS: 15.2 Hosts Provide Diverse Habitats for is Range Expansion of coyote a Result of Parasites 332 competitive Release from Wolves? 296 15.3 Direct Transmission Can Occur between Summary 298 • Study Questions 299 Host Organisms 332 • Further Readings 300 15.4 Transmission between Hosts Can Involve an Intermediate Vector 333 R TE 14 15.5 Transmission Can Involve Multiple Hosts p Predation 301 a h and Stages 333 c 14.1 Predation Takes a Variety of Forms 302 15.6 Hosts Respond to Parasitic Invasions 334 14.2 Mathematical Model Describes the 15.7 Parasites Can Affect Host Survival and Interaction of Predator and Prey Reproduction 335 Populations 302 15.8 Parasites May Regulate Host 14.3 Predator-Prey Interaction Results in Populations 336 Population Cycles 304 15.9 Parasitism Can Evolve into a Mutually 14.4 Model Suggests Mutual Population Beneficial Relationship 337 Regulation 306 15.10 Mutualisms Involve Diverse Species 14.5 Functional Responses Relate Prey Interactions 338 Consumed to Prey Density 307 15.11 Mutualisms Are Involved in the Transfer ■ QuantiFying Ecology 14.1: Type ii of Nutrients 339 Functional Response 309 ■ FiEld StudiES: John J. Stachowicz 340 14.6 Predators Respond Numerically to Changing Prey Density 310 15.12 Some Mutualisms Are Defensive 342 14.7 Foraging Involves Decisions about the 15.13 Mutualisms Are Often Necessary for Allocation of Time and Energy 313 Pollination 343 ■ QuantiFying Ecology 14.2: a 15.14 Mutualisms Are Involved in Seed Simple Model of optimal Foraging 314 Dispersal 344 14.8 Risk of Predation Can Influence Foraging 15.15 Mutualism Can Influence Population Behavior 314 Dynamics 345 7 A01_SMIT7406_09_GE_FM.INDD 7 20/02/15 4:09 PM ■ QuantiFying Ecology 15.1: a 17.4 Food Webs Illustrate Indirect Model of Mutualistic interactions 346 Interactions 387 ■ EcoLogicaL iSSuES & appLicaTionS: 17.5 Food Webs Suggest Controls of land-use changes are Resulting in Community Structure 390 an Expansion of infectious Diseases 17.6 Environmental Heterogeneity Influences impacting human health 347 Community Diversity 392 Summary 349 • Study Questions 350 17.7 Resource Availability Can Influence Plant • Further Readings 351 Diversity within a Community 393 ■ EcoLogicaL iSSuES & appLicaTionS: PART 5 coMMunity Ecology the Reintroduction of a top Predator to yellowstone national Park led to a complex trophic cascade 396 R TE 16 Summary 398 • Study Questions 399 p Community structure 352 a h • Further Readings 400 c 16.1 Biological Structure of Community Defined by Species Composition 353 R 16.2 Species Diversity Is defined by Species pTE 18 Community Dynamics 401 a Richness and Evenness 354 ch 18.1 Community Structure Changes through 16.3 Dominance Can Be Defined by a Time 402 Number of Criteria 356 18.2 Primary Succession Occurs on Newly 16.4 Keystone Species Influence Community Exposed Substrates 404 Structure Disproportionately to Their 18.3 Secondary Succession Occurs after Numbers 357 Disturbances 405 16.5 Food Webs Describe Species 18.4 The Study of Succession Has a Rich Interactions 358 History 407 16.6 Species within a Community Can Be 18.5 Succession Is Associated with Classified into Functional Groups 363 Autogenic Changes in Environmental 16.7 Communities Have a Characteristic Conditions 410 Physical Structure 363 18.6 Species Diversity Changes during 16.8 Zonation Is Spatial Change in Succession 412 Community Structure 367 18.7 Succession Involves Heterotrophic 16.9 Defining Boundaries between Species 413 Communities Is Often Difficult 368 18.8 Systematic Changes in Community ■ QuantiFying Ecology 16.1: Structure Are a Result of Allogenic community Similarity 370 Environmental Change at a Variety of 16.10 Two Contrasting Views of the Timescales 415 Community 370 18.9 Community Structure Changes over ■ EcoLogicaL iSSuES & appLicaTionS: Geologic Time 416 Restoration Ecology Requires an understanding of the Processes 18.10 The Concept of Community influencing the Structure and dynamics Revisited 417 of communities 372 ■ EcoLogicaL iSSuES & appLicaTionS: Summary 374 • Study Questions 374 community Dynamics in Eastern north • Further Readings 375 america over the past Two centuries are a Result of changing patterns of land use 421 R TE 17 Summary 423 • Study Questions 424 p factors Influencing the structure of a • Further Readings 424 h c Communities 376 17.1 Community Structure Is an Expression of R TE 19 the Species’ Ecological Niche 377 ap landscape Dynamics 426 h c 17.2 Zonation Is a Result of Differences in 19.1 A Variety of Processes Gives Rise to Species’ Tolerance and Interactions Landscape Patterns 427 along Environmental Gradients 379 19.2 Landscape Pattern Is Defined by the ■ FiEld StudiES: Sally d. hacker 380 Spatial Arrangement and Connectivity of 17.3 Species Interactions Are Often Diffuse 385 Patches 429 8 A01_SMIT7406_09_GE_FM.INDD 8 20/02/15 4:09 PM
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