Elementary surveying: an introduction to geomatics

961 Pages·23.656 MB·English

by  Ghilani, Charles D., Gidudu, Anthony, Wolf, Paul R

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Elementary Surveying
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This is a special edition of an established olf hilan
title widely used by colleges and universities i
throughout the world. Pearson published this An Introduction to Geomatics
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Elementary
Surveying
FPO
An Introduction
to Geomatics
Fourteenth Edition
Global Edition
Charles D. Ghilani
Professor of Engineering
The Pennsylvania State University
Paul r. Wolf
Professor Emeritus, Civil and Environmental Engineering
University of Wisconsin–Madison
Global Edition contributions by
Anthony Gidudu
Senior Lecturer, Department of Geomatics and Land Management
Makerere University
Boston Columbus Indianapolis New York San Francisco Upper Saddle River
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© Pearson Education Limited 2015
The rights of Charles D. Ghilani and Paul R. Wolf to be identified as the authors of this work have been
asserted by them in accordance with the Copyright, Designs and Patents Act 1988.
Authorized adaptation from the United States edition, entitled Elementary Surveying: An Introduction to
Geomatics, 14/e, ISBN 978-0-13-375888-7, by Charles D. Ghilani and Paul R. Wolf, published by Pearson
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ISBN 10: 1-292-06049-2
ISBN 13: 978-1-292-06049-1 (Print)
ISBN 13: 978-1-292-06067-5 (PDF)
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A catalogue record for this book is available from the British Library
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Typeset by Integra Software Services Pvt. Ltd.
Printed and bound by Courier Westford in the United States of America
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Table of Contents
PrefAce 19
What’s New 20
Acknowledgments 21
1 • IntroductIon 23
1.1 Definition of Surveying 23
1.2 Geomatics 25
1.3 History of Surveying 26
1.4 Geodetic and Plane Surveys 30
1.5 Importance of Surveying 31
1.6 Specialized Types of Surveys 32
1.7 Surveying Safety 34
1.8 Land and Geographic Information Systems 35
1.9 Federal Surveying and Mapping Agencies 36
1.10 The Surveying Profession 37
1.11 Professional Surveying Organizations 38
1.12 Surveying on the Internet 39
1.13 Future Challenges in Surveying 39
Problems 41
Bibliography 41
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4 Table of ConTenTs
2 • unIts, sIGnIfIcAnt fIGures,
And fIeld notes 43
PART I UnITs And sIgnIfIcAnT fIgURes 43
2.1 Introduction 43
2.2 Units of Measurement 43
2.3 International System of Units (SI) 45
2.4 Significant Figures 47
2.5 Rounding Off Numbers 49
PART II fIeld noTes 50
2.6 Field Notes 50
2.7 General Requirements of Handwritten Field Notes 51
2.8 Types of Field Books 52
2.9 Kinds of Notes 53
2.10 Arrangements of Notes 53
2.11 Suggestions for Recording Notes 54
2.12 Introduction to Survey Controllers 56
2.13 Transfer of Files from Survey Controllers 60
2.14 Digital Data File Management 60
2.15 Advantages and Disadvantages of Survey Controllers 62
Problems 63
Bibliography 64
3 • theory of errors In observAtIons 65
3.1 Introduction 65
3.2 Direct and Indirect Observations 65
3.3 Errors in Measurements 66
3.4 Mistakes 66
3.5 Sources of Errors in Making Observations 67
3.6 Types of Errors 67
3.7 Precision and Accuracy 68
3.8 Eliminating Mistakes and Systematic Errors 69
3.9 Probability 69
3.10 Most Probable Value 70
3.11 Residuals 71
3.12 Occurrence of Random Errors 71
3.13 General Laws of Probability 75
3.14 Measures of Precision 76
3.15 Interpretation of Standard Deviation 78
3.16 The 50, 90, and 95 Percent Errors 78
3.17 Error Propagation 80
3.18 Applications 85
3.19 Conditional Adjustment of Observations 85
3.20 Weights of Observations 86
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Table of ConTenTs 5
3.21 Least-Squares Adjustment 87
Problems 88
Bibliography 90
4 • levelInG—theory, Methods,
And equIPMent 91
PART I levelIng—TheoRy And MeThods 91
4.1 Introduction 91
4.2 Definitions 91
4.3 North American Vertical Datum 93
4.4 Curvature and Refraction 94
4.5 Methods for Determining Differences in Elevation 96
PART II eqUIPMenT foR dIffeRenTIAl levelIng 103
4.6 Categories of Levels 103
4.7 Telescopes 104
4.8 Level Vials 105
4.9 Tilting Levels 107
4.10 Automatic Levels 108
4.11 Digital Levels 110
4.12 Tripods 111
4.13 Hand Level 111
4.14 Level Rods 112
4.15 Testing and Adjusting Levels 114
Problems 119
Bibliography 120
5 • levelInG—fIeld Procedures
And coMPutAtIons 121
5.1 Introduction 121
5.2 Carrying and Setting Up a Level 121
5.3 Duties of a Rodperson 123
5.4 Differential Leveling 124
5.5 Precision 130
5.6 Adjustments of Simple Level Circuits 132
5.7 Reciprocal Leveling 133
5.8 Three-Wire Leveling 134
5.9 Profile Leveling 135
5.10 Grid, Cross-Section, or Borrow-Pit Leveling 140
5.11 Use of the Hand Level 140
5.12 Sources of Error in Leveling 140
5.13 Mistakes 143
5.14 Reducing Errors and Eliminating Mistakes 144
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6 Table of ConTenTs
5.15 Using Software 144
Problems 145
Bibliography 148
6 • dIstAnce MeAsureMent 149
PART I MeThods foR MeAsURIng dIsTAnces 149
6.1 Introduction 149
6.2 Summary of Methods for Making Linear Measurements 149
6.3 Pacing 150
6.4 Odometer Readings 150
6.5 Optical Rangefinders 151
6.6 Tacheometry 151
6.7 Subtense Bar 151
PART II dIsTAnce MeAsUReMenTs by TAPIng 151
6.8 Introduction to Taping 151
6.9 Taping Equipment and Accessories 152
6.10 Care of Taping Equipment 153
6.11 Taping on Level Ground 154
6.12 Horizontal Measurements on Sloping Ground 156
6.13 Slope Measurements 157
6.14 Sources of Error in Taping 159
PART III elecTRonIc dIsTAnce MeAsUReMenT 163
6.15 Introduction 163
6.16 Propagation of Electromagnetic Energy 164
6.17 Principles of Electronic Distance Measurement 167
6.18 Electro-Optical Instruments 169
6.19 Total Station Instruments 171
6.20 EDM Instruments Without Reflectors 172
6.21 Computing Horizontal Lengths from Slope Distances 173
6.22 Errors in Electronic Distance Measurement 175
6.23 Using Software 180
Problems 181
Bibliography 182
7 • AnGles, AzIMuths, And beArInGs 183
7.1 Introduction 183
7.2 Units of Angle Measurement 183
7.3 Kinds of Horizontal Angles 184
7.4 Direction of a Line 186
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Table of ConTenTs 7
7.5 Azimuths 186
7.6 Bearings 187
7.7 Comparison of Azimuths and Bearings 188
7.8 Computing Azimuths 190
7.9 Computing Bearings 192
7.10 The Compass and the Earth’s Magnetic Field 193
7.11 Magnetic Declination 195
7.12 Variations in Magnetic Declination 197
7.13 Software for Determining Magnetic Declination 197
7.14 Local Attraction 199
7.15 Typical Magnetic Declination Problems 199
7.16 Mistakes 201
Problems 202
Bibliography 204
8 • totAl stAtIon InstruMents;
AnGle observAtIons 205
PART I ToTAl sTATIon InsTRUMenTs 205
8.1 Introduction 205
8.2 Characteristics of Total Station Instruments 205
8.3 Functions Performed by Total Station Instruments 208
8.4 Parts of a Total Station Instrument 209
8.5 Handling and Setting up a Total Station Instrument 212
8.6 Servo-Driven and Remotely Operated Total
Station Instruments 215
PART II Angle obseRvATIons 217
8.7 Relationship of Angles and Distances 217
8.8 Observing Horizontal Angles with Total Station Instruments 218
8.9 Observing Multiple Horizontal Angles by the Direction Method 220
8.10 Closing the Horizon 222
8.11 Observing Deflection Angles 223
8.12 Observing Azimuths 224
8.13 Observing Vertical Angles 225
8.14 Sights and Marks 227
8.15 Prolonging a Straight Line 228
8.16 Balancing-In 229
8.17 Random Traverse 230
8.18 Total Stations for Determining Elevation Differences 231
8.19 Adjustment of Total Station Instruments and Their Accessories 232
8.20 Sources of Error in Total Station Work 236
8.21 Propagation of Random Errors in Angle Observations 242
8.22 Mistakes 243
Problems 243
Bibliography 245
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8 Table of ConTenTs
9 • trAversInG 246
9.1 Introduction 246
9.2 Observation of Traverse Angles or Directions 248
9.3 Observation of Traverse Lengths 249
9.4 Selection of Traverse Stations 250
9.5 Referencing Traverse Stations 251
9.6 Traverse Field Notes 252
9.7 Angle Misclosure 252
9.8 Traversing with Total Station Instruments 254
9.9 Radial Traversing 255
9.10 Sources of Error in Traversing 257
9.11 Mistakes in Traversing 257
Problems 257
10 • trAverse coMPutAtIons 259
10.1 Introduction 259
10.2 Balancing Angles 260
10.3 Computation of Preliminary Azimuths or Bearings 262
10.4 Departures and Latitudes 263
10.5 Departure and Latitude Closure Conditions 265
10.6 Traverse Linear Misclosure and Relative Precision 265
10.7 Traverse Adjustment 266
10.8 Rectangular Coordinates 269
10.9 Alternative Methods for Making Traverse
Computations 270
10.10 Inversing 274
10.11 Computing Final Adjusted Traverse Lengths
and Directions 275
10.12 Coordinate Computations in Boundary Surveys 277
10.13 Use of Open Traverses 279
10.14 State Plane Coordinate Systems 282
10.15 Traverse Computations Using Computers 283
10.16 Locating Blunders in Traverse Observations 283
10.17 Mistakes in Traverse Computations 286
Problems 286
Bibliography 289
11 • coordInAte GeoMetry In
surveyInG cAlculAtIons 290
11.1 Introduction 290
11.2 Coordinate Forms of Equations for Lines
and Circles 291
11.3 Perpendicular Distance from a Point to a Line 293
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Table of ConTenTs 9
11.4 Intersection of Two Lines, Both Having
Known Directions 295
11.5 Intersection of a Line with a Circle 297
11.6 Intersection of Two Circles 300
11.7 Three-Point Resection 302
11.8 Two-Dimensional Conformal Coordinate
Transformation 305
11.9 Inaccessible Point Problem 310
11.10 Three-Dimensional Two-Point Resection 312
11.11 Software 315
Problems 316
Bibliography 320
12 • AreA 321
12.1 Introduction 321
12.2 Methods of Measuring Area 321
12.3 Area by Division into Simple Figures 322
12.4 Area by Offsets from Straight Lines 323
12.5 Area by Coordinates 325
12.6 Area by Double-Meridian Distance Method 329
12.7 Area of Parcels with Circular Boundaries 332
12.8 Partitioning of Lands 333
12.9 Area by Measurements from Maps 337
12.10 Software 339
12.11 Sources of Error in Determining Areas 340
12.12 Mistakes in Determining Areas 340
Problems 340
Bibliography 342
13 • GlobAl nAvIGAtIon sAtellIte
systeMs—IntroductIon And
PrIncIPles of oPerAtIon 343
13.1 Introduction 343
13.2 Overview of GPS 344
13.3 The GPS Signal 346
13.4 Reference Coordinate Systems 349
13.5 Fundamentals of Satellite Positioning 359
13.6 Errors in Observations 361
13.7 Differential Positioning 369
13.8 Kinematic Methods 371
13.9 Relative Positioning 372
13.10 Other Satellite Navigation Systems 375
13.11 The Future 378
Problems 379
Bibliography 380
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