Electronics Explained: The New Systems Approach to Learning Electronics

343 Pages·2010·2.25 MB·English

by  Louis Frenzel

Electronics Explained
Electronics Explained
The New Systems Approach to
Learning Electronics

Louis E. Frenzel, Jr.
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Library of Congress Cataloging-in-Publication Data
Frenzel, Louis E.
Electronics explained : the new systems approach to learning electronics / Louis E. Frenzel, Jr.
p. cm.
ISBN 978-1-85617-700-9
1. Electronics—Textbooks.  I. Title. 
TK7816.F683 2010
621.381—dc22  2010006565
British Library Cataloguing-in-Publication Data
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10 11 12 13 14  10 9 8 7 6 5 4 3 2 1
With love to my one and only, Joan Ree.
List of Figures
FIGURE 1.1 M ajor sectors of the electronics industry and common
applications. 4
FIGURE 1.2 G eneral block diagram of how the electronics industry
works from raw materials to end users. 6
FIGURE 1.3 M odel of how all electronic circuits and equipment work.
Input signals are processed by circuits and equipment
into new output signals. 8
FIGURE 1.4 M odel showing how a cell phone communicates with a
cell site to make a call. 9
FIGURE 1.5 B lock diagram representing any digital computer, be it
a mainframe, PC, or embedded controller. 10
FIGURE 1.6 T he most common form of robot emulates a human
arm and hand to perform work automatically under the
control of a computer. 12
FIGURE 2.1 Physics model of what a copper atom looks like. 17
FIGURE 2.2 Basic electrical circuit used to describe every
electronic circuit. 19
FIGURE 2.3 Permanent bar magnet illustrating the magnetic lines
of flux that surround it. 21
FIGURE 2.4 (A) Current in a wire produces a magnetic field
around it. (B) Coiling the wire increases the strength
of the magnetic field. 22
FIGURE 2.5 Relative motion between a magnetic field and a
conductor such as a wire causes a voltage to be induced
into the wire making it a voltage source. 23
FIGURE 2.6 DC voltages. (A) DC voltage source such as a battery or
power supply. One side is usually grounded to serve as a
reference. (B) Fixed, continuous positive DC voltage shown
over time. (C) Negative DC voltage. (D) Varying positive
DC voltage. (E) DC voltage pulses. 25
FIGURE 2.7 AC voltages. (A) AC voltage source drawn as a circle
with a wave inside. The output polarity changes
periodically. (B) Sine wave, the most common AC voltage
shape. (C) Rectangular wave or AC pulses. (D) Triangular
wave. (E) Random AC wave that may represent voice
or video. 27
xv
xvi List of Figures
FIGURE 2.8 Basic concept of any battery. 29
FIGURE 2.9 Battery and cell symbols used in circuit diagrams.
(A) Cell. (B) Four cells in series making a battery. Cell
voltage add-up. (C) Symbol for battery of any number
of cells. (D) Cells in parallel to increase current capability. 30
FIGURE 2.10 Panel comprised of solar cells in series and parallel
make up DC source that charges the battery in a spacecraft. 32
FIGURE 2.11 Frequency-domain views. (A) 1-MHz sine wave.
(B) 1-MHz square wave. 35
FIGURE 2.12 A low cost digital multimeter that measures DC and
AC voltages, current, and resistance. 36
FIGURE 3.1 Hierarchy of electronics from systems to components. 41
FIGURE 3.2 System block diagram of typical personal computer. 42
FIGURE 3.3 System block diagram of iPod or MP3 music player. 43
FIGURE 3.4 Switch and how it is used. 44
FIGURE 3.5 Types of resistors and schematic symbol. 45
FIGURE 3.6 Standard resistor color code. 46
FIGURE 3.7 Voltage divider, the most common resistor circuit. 46
FIGURE 3.8 Capacitor construction and schematic symbol. 47
FIGURE 3.9 (A) Charging capacitor. (B) Discharging capacitor. 47
FIGURE 3.10 Low-pass filter, a common capacitor use. 48
FIGURE 3.11 How capacitor passes AC sine wave but blocks
DC voltage. 49
FIGURE 3.12 Schematic symbol for inductor. 50
FIGURE 3.13 Schematic symbol for transformer. 50
FIGURE 3.14 Diode, its schematic symbol, and how to bias it
for conduction or cut-off. 51
FIGURE 3.15 How a diode rectifies AC into DC. 51
FIGURE 3.16 Schematic symbol for bipolar junction transistor
(BJT) and its inputs and outputs. 52
FIGURE 3.17 Schematic symbol for MOSFET and its input
and outputs. 52
FIGURE 3.18 Simple BJT amplifier and how it works. 53
FIGURE 3.19 Simple MOSFET switch and how it works. 54
FIGURE 3.20 Typical integrated circuit today. This one is a dual-
satellite TV tuner for set-top boxes. The size is only
7  7 mm. The pins are soldered to a printed
circuit board. (Courtesy NXP Semiconductor.) 54
FIGURE 3.21 Common breadboarding socket for building prototypes
or just experimenting. (Courtesy Global Specialties.) 56
FIGURE 3.22 Measuring battery voltage with multimeter. 56
FIGURE 3.23 This is the circuit used to light an LED and how to wire
it on the breadboard. 57
List of Figures xvii
FIGURE 3.24 Circuits for charging and discharging capacitor
and respective wiring. 59
FIGURE 3.25 Circuit that turns an LED off and on with MOSFET
and wiring. 60
FIGURE 4.1 Linear circuit has a straight-line response. As input
varies, output varies by factor of 10 larger, producing
straight-line output. 62
FIGURE 4.2 Block symbol for amplifier. Gain, A, is often given.
DC power inputs are not usually shown. 62
FIGURE 4.3 Single-ended (A) and differential input (B) amplifiers.
Inputs and outputs are referenced to ground. 64
FIGURE 4.4 Class A amplifier conducts continuously. 64
FIGURE 4.5 Class B amplifier conducts half the time, making it
more efficient. 65
FIGURE 4.6 Class C amplifier only conducts for part of a half cycle,
but the current pulse stimulates resonant tank circuit
that oscillates at desired frequency. 66
FIGURE 4.7 Class D amplifier uses PWM at higher frequency to
switch higher voltages for greater output. Class D
amplifiers are more efficient than any other type,
and thus do not produce as much heat. 67
FIGURE 4.8 Most commonly used op amp circuit configurations.
(A) Inverting amplifier. (B) Noninverting amplifier.
(C) Follower. (D) Differential amplifier. 68
FIGURE 4.9 Instrumentation amplifier widely used to amplify
small sensor signals in industrial applications. 69
FIGURE 4.10 Amplifier input impedance (A) and output
impedance (B). 70
FIGURE 4.11 When one amplifier feeds another, input and output
impedances form a voltage divider that attenuates the
signal and offsets some of the gain. 71
FIGURE 4.12 Cascading amplifier provides more gain. Total
gain is product of individual gains or sum of dB gains. 72
FIGURE 4.13 Frequency-response curves show output versus input
frequency. Curve in (A) is response of op amp that
extends from DC to 5-MHz cut-off frequency. Curve in
(B) is response of common stereo audio amplifier. 73
FIGURE 4.14 Four common filter types and their response curves
and symbols. (A) Low pass. (B) High pass.
(C) Band pass. (D) Band reject or notch. 74
FIGURE 4.15 Types of oscillators and their symbols. (A) Sine wave.
(B) Rectangular pulse. (C) VCO. (D) Crystal clock
oscillator. 76
xviii List of Figures
FIGURE 4.16 Linear mixing with resistors (A) or an op amp summer (B). 77
FIGURE 4.17 Non-linear mixer used to generate higher and low
frequencies. 77
FIGURE 4.18 Phase detector converts phase shift into proportional
DC average. 78
FIGURE 4.19 Phase-locked loop. 79
FIGURE 4.20 Frequency synthesizer using phase-locked loop.
Changing the divider ratio changes the frequency. 81
FIGURE 4.21 Typical power supply configuration using bus
architecture, regulators, and DC–DC converters to
get desired number of outputs. reg, regulator. 83
FIGURE 4.22 Concept of duty cycle and how varying pulse
widths can be filtered into a proportional DC
average voltage. avg, average. 85
FIGURE 4.23 Common DC-to-AC solar power system. 87
FIGURE 5.1 Binary signal that represents 0 and 1 as voltage levels. 89
FIGURE 5.2 Off/on switches are used to enter binary data
into digital circuits. 91
FIGURE 5.3 How lights or LEDs are used to represent binary data. 92
FIGURE 5.4 Parallel binary data transfer over bus. 98
FIGURE 5.5 Serial data transfer where 1 bit occurs after another
in time. 99
FIGURE 5.6 Logic symbols for inverter and truth table. 101
FIGURE 5.7 Logic symbols for AND gate and truth table. 102
FIGURE 5.8 How AND gate is used to turn signal off or on. (A)
The AND gate showing the input and output names. (B)
The waveforms of the inputs and output. 103
FIGURE 5.9 Logic symbols for OR gate and truth table. 103
FIGURE 5.10 Logic symbols for NAND gate and truth table. 104
FIGURE 5.11 Logic symbols for NOR gate and truth table. 105
FIGURE 5.12 Logic symbols for XOR and XNOR gates and truth tables. 105
FIGURE 5.13 Logic symbols for flip-flops. (A) RS. (B) D type. (C) JK. 106
FIGURE 5.14 Toggling T input on JK flip-flop causes it to change
states, producing frequency division by 2. 106
FIGURE 5.15 Cascading JK flip-flops produce higher-frequency division
ratios, which is also a binary counter that counts from
0000 to 1111. 107
FIGURE 5.16 Storage register from one word consists of FFs.
It also has clock/load and clear/reset inputs. 107
FIGURE 5.17 (A) Shifting serial data into shift register.
(B) Shifting serial data out of shift register. 108
FIGURE 5.18 Shift registers used for (A) serial-to-parallel data
conversion and (B) parallel-to-serial data conversion. 109
List of Figures xix
FIGURE 5.19 Counter storing binary value equal to number of input
pulses that occurred. 110
FIGURE 5.20 Digital multiplexer (mux) that selects one of four
inputs to appear at the single output. 111
FIGURE 5.21 Decoders. (A) 1-AND gate decoder that identifies
input 0110. (B) 4-to-16 decoder that identifies
1 of 16 different 4-bit input values. 112
FIGURE 5.22 Basic concept for random access memory
(RAM). Address selects one of eight storage locations.
Then data may be read from that location or data
stored in it. 113
FIGURE 5.23 RAM storage cells. (A) RS FF for SRAM.
(B) Capacitor cell for DRAM. 114
FIGURE 5.24 Storage cell used in EEPROM and flash memories is
MOSFET with a special floating gate that
keeps transistor off or on. 115
FIGURE 5.25 PLD concept. (A) Block concept of programmable
AND and OR gate arrays. (B) Simple circuit of
PLD showing programming by dots on AND and
OR gate arrays. 117
FIGURE 5.26 Analog-to-digital conversion is performed by
sampling analog signal at equal intervals and
generating proportional binary value. 119
FIGURE 5.27 Symbol for ADC with both parallel and
serial output examples. 120
FIGURE 5.28 Converting binary data back into analog signal with DAC. 120
FIGURE 5.29 DAC output is stepped approximation to original
analog signal. 121
FIGURE 6.1 How a micro controls external devices. 125
FIGURE 6.2 How a micro monitors external devices. 125
FIGURE 6.3 Controlling liquid level in a tank automatically
with a micro. 126
FIGURE 6.4 General block diagram of any digital computer or
microcontroller. 127
FIGURE 6.5 How data is manipulated in a register. Examples of
shifting data, incrementing and decrementing a register,
and clearing (resetting) a register to 0. 129
FIGURE 6.6 How ALU adds or otherwise processes two data values. 130
FIGURE 6.7 Program counter identifies the address in memory to be
accessed. 132
FIGURE 6.8 Three common instruction word formats with
addresses or data. 133