Electronic and Experimental Music: Technology, Music, and Culture

481 Pages·2008·8.16 MB·English

by  Thom Holmes

1EEE
2
3
4
5
6
7
8
9
1022
1
2
3
4
EEE15
6
7
8
9
20
1
2
3
4
5EEE
6
7
8
9
30
1
2
3
4
5
6
7
8
9
40
1
2
3
4
45
46
47EEE

Electronic and
Experimental Music

When the first edition of Electronic and Experimental Music appeared over 20 years ago,
the modern history of electronic music spanned only half as many years as it does today.
The interim years have seen the rise of MIDI as a bridge between analog and digital
synthesis and the adoption of computers as the key ingredient in the creation, editing,
and performance of electronic music.
Electronic and Experimental Music: Technology, Music, and Culture is a revised and
expanded edition of this classic work, providing a thorough treatment of the relevant
history behind the marriage of technology and music that has led to the state of elec-
tronic music today. Beginning with an early history of electronic music before 1945,
the book outlines key composers, inventions, and concepts, ranging from Edgar Varèse
to Brian Eno; musique concrete to turntablism; and compositional techniques used in both
analog and digital synthesis.
The third edition’s reader-friendly writing style, logical organization, and features
provide easy access to key ideas, milestones, and concepts.
Features include:

•
Reader’s guides and summaries at the beginning and end of each chapter
•
Innovations boxes providing a unique profile of an influential individual in the field
of electronic music
•
Listen playlists recommending key recordings in each musical genre mentioned in
each chapter
•
Milestones timelines summarizing the major technological and musical innovations
discussed in each chapter.

Thom Holmes is a composer and music historian. He studied composition with Paul
Epstein in Philadelphia, was the long-time publisher of the magazine Recordings of
Experimental Music (1979–1985), and worked with John Cage.

Anne
Shaina

Dedicated waveforms

Moog (’34–’05)

Electronic and
Experimental Music

Technology, Music, and Culture

THIRD EDITION

Thom Holmes

1EEE
2
3
4
5
6
7
8
9
1022
1
2
3
4
EEE15
6
7
8
9
20
1
2
3
4
5EEE
6
7
8
9
30
1
2
3
4
5
6
7
8
9
40
1
2
3
4
45
46
47EEE

First published 1985 by Scribner
Second edition published 2002 by Routledge

This edition published 2008
by Routledge
270 Madison Ave, New York, NY 10016

Simultaneously published in the UK
by Routledge
2 Park Square, Milton Park, Abingdon, Oxon OX14 4RN

Routledge is an imprint of the Taylor & Francis Group, an informa business

Copyright © 1985, 2002 Thom Holmes; 2008 Taylor & Francis

All rights reserved. No part of this book may be reprinted or reproduced
or utilized in any form or by any electronic, mechanical, or other
means, now known or hereafter invented, including photocopying and
recording, or in any information storage or retrieval system, without
permission in writing from the publishers.

Trademark Notice: Product or corporate names may be trademarks
or registered trademarks, and are used only for identification and
explanation without intent to infringe.

Library of Congress Cataloging in Publication Data
Holmes, Thom.
Electronic and experimental music: technology, music, and culture/
Thom Holmes—3rd ed.
p. cm.
Includes bibliographical references and index.
1. Electronic music—History and criticism.
2. Computer music—
History and criticism.
I. Title.
ML1380.H64 2008
786.7—dc22
2007038213

ISBN10: 0–415–95781–8 (hbk)
ISBN10: 0–415–95782–6 (pbk)
ISBN10: 0–203–92959–4 (ebk)

ISBN13: 978–0–415–95781–6 (hbk)
ISBN13: 978–0–415–95782–3 (pbk)
ISBN13: 978–0–203–92959–9 (ebk)

This edition published in the Taylor & Francis e-Library, 2008.

“To purchase your own copy of this or any of Taylor & Francis or Routledge’s
collection of thousands of eBooks please go to www.eBookstore.tandf.co.uk.”

ISBN 0-203-92959-4 Master e-book ISBN

List of illustrations
vii
Preface and Acknowledgments
xiii

Part I
Early History—Predecessors and Pioneers
(1874 to 1960)
1

1 Electronic Music Before 1945
3

2 Early Electronic Music in Europe
41

3 Early Electronic Music in the United States
79

4 Early Electronic Music in Japan
105

Part II
Analog Synthesis and Instruments
117

5 Tape Composition and Fundamental Concepts of
Electronic Music
119

6 Early Synthesizers and Experimenters
141

7 Principles of Analog Synthesis and Voltage Control
173

8 The Voltage-Controlled Synthesizer
207

9 The Evolution of Analog Synthesizers
238

Part III
Digital Synthesis and Computer Music
249

10 Early Computer Music (1953–85)
251

11 The Microprocessor Revolution (1975–90)
271

1EEE
2
3
4
5
6
7
8
9
1022
1
2
3
4
EEE15
6
7
8
9
20
1
2
3
4
5EEE
6
7
8
9
30
1
2
3
4
5
6
7
8
9
40
1
2
3
4
45
46
47EEE

Contents

12 The Principles of Computer Music
294

13 The Evolution of Computer Musical Instruments and Software
319

Part IV
The Music
331

14 Classical and Experimental Music
333

15 Live Electronic Music and Ambient Music
376

16 Rock, Space Age Pop, and Turntablism
407

Pioneering Works of Electronic Music
429
Notes
433
Index
449

vi
CONTENTS

PLATES

1.1
Edgard Varèse and J. W. de Bruyn at the Philips studios,
Eindhoven
3
1.2
Luigi Russolo and Ugo Piatti with Intonarumori, 1914
16
1.3
The cover of the original Art of Noise
18
1.4
Leon Theremin and his instrument, 1928
20
1.5
RCA Theremin advertisement, 1930
21
1.6
Clara Rockmore, 1932
21
1.7
Lucie Bigelow Rosen with the Theremin, late 1930s
22
1.8
Theremin custom-made for Lucie Bigelow Rosen
23
1.9
An ensemble of cello Theremins, 1932
24
1.10
Lydia Kavina
25
1.11
Ensemble of Ondes Martenots, Paris World’s Fair, 1937
25
1.12
Ondes Martenot keyboard template and finger-ring controller
26
1.13
Ondes Martenot finger-ring controller
26
1.14
Ondes Martenot left-hand expression controls
26
1.15
A keyboard model of the Ondes Martenot
26
1.16
Oskar Sala and the Mixtur-Trautonium
32
1.17
Oskar Sala and the string controls of the Mixtur-Trautonium
32
1.18
The Telegraphone
34
1.19
The AEG Magnetophone
34
2.1
Pierre Schaeffer operating the Pupitre d’espace, 1951
41
2.2
The RTF/GRM Studio Phonogène, 1967
52
2.3
The RTF/GRM Studio Magnétophone, 1962
53
2.4
A section of the WDR Studio for Electronic Music,
Cologne, 1966
59
2.5
Another view of the WDR Studio for Electronic Music,
Cologne, 1966
60
2.6
Karlheinz Stockhausen, 1956
66
2.7
Stockhausen’s rotating speaker table, 1958
68
3.1
John Cage and David Tudor, 1962
79
3.2
Louis and Bebe Barron in their Greenwich Village studio, 1956
82

1EEE
2
3
4
5
6
7
8
9
1022
1
2
3
4
EEE15
6
7
8
9
20
1
2
3
4
5EEE
6
7
8
9
30
1
2
3
4
5
6
7
8
9
40
1
2
3
4
45
46
47EEE

Illustrations

3.3
Second view of the Barrons’ studio in New York City
82
3.4
John Cage, 1992
87
3.5
John Cage performing Water Walk on Italian television, 1959
88
3.6
Otto Luening and Vladimir Ussachevsky, Columbia Electronic
Music Center, c.1960
92
3.7
Gordon Mumma and Robert Ashley, Ann Arbor, 1960
95
3.8
Milton Cohen’s Space Theater in Ann Arbor, c.1960
96
4.1
Album cover by Yoko Ono, 1958
105
4.2
Sony G-Type tape recorder
106
4.3
Takehisa Kosugi
109
5.1
Pauline Oliveros and the Buchla synthesizer
119
5.2
Pauline Oliveros at the San Francisco Tape Music Center
130
5.3
Vladimir Ussachevsky with a specially designed tape loop
feeding device
131
6.1
Columbia–Princeton Electronic Music Center, 1958
141
6.2
RCA Mark II front panel
150
6.3
Punched paper recorder/reader of the RCA Mark II
150
6.4
Sample punched paper roll created by Vladimir Ussachevsky,
c.1960
150
6.5
RCA Mark II today at Columbia University
151
6.6
Front panel of the RCA Mark II as it is today
151
6.7
Rear panel of the RCA Mark II
151
6.8
Alice Shields at the Columbia University Electronic Music
Center, 1970
155
6.9
Halim El-Dabh, early 1950s
156
6.10
Four paper tape input devices, Siemens studio
159
6.11
Siemens Studio für Elektronische Musik, 1960
159
6.12
Raymond Scott in his home studio, 1959
162
6.13
Raymond Scott’s Clavivox
163
6.14
Electronic Sackbut prototype, 1948
166
7.1
Original Minimoog brochure, 1972
173
7.2
Composer David Lee Myers uses feedback circuits
187
8.1
Robert Moog with a variety of synthesizers, 1972
207
8.2
The Moog Modular Synthesizer, 1965
210
8.3
The Moog Modular Synthesizer, 1967
210
8.4
The Moog Modular Synthesizer, 1968
210
8.5
Eric Siday in his private studio, c.1967
211
8.6
Joel Chadabe in the studio of the State University of
New York, 1967
213
8.7
Zodiac Cosmic Sounds LP, 1967
214
8.8
Paul Beaver and Bernard Krause, 1970
215
8.9
The studio used by Wendy Carlos to produce Switched-On
Bach, 1968
217
8.10
Switched-On Bach LP, 1968
218
8.11
Herbert Deutsch, Robert Moog, and Joel Chadabe, 2001
222
8.12
Don Buchla, 2001
222
8.13
Vladimir Ussachevsky with the Buchla synthesizer, 1970
223

viii
ILLUSTRATIONS

8.14
Morton Subotnick, 2001
224
8.15
Charles Cohen with the Buchla Music Easel, 2001
225
8.16
Stockhausen with an EMS Synthi 100 analog synthesizer
225
9.1
David Lee Myers and Charles Cohen at the Knitting Factory,
New York, 2001
238
10.1
Max Mathews and L. Rosler at Bell Labs, c.1967
251
10.2
IRCAM, 2006
259
10.3
Joel Chadabe
262
10.4
Jon Appleton and the Synclavier II, 1982
265
10.5
E-mu Emulator, 1985
266
10.6
AlphaSyntauri computer music system, 1983
267
11.1
Nicolas Collins in performance, 2005
271
11.2
Promotional flyer for the Chocorua summer workshop
274
11.3
A homemade synthesizer–microcomputer interface
275
11.4
Laurie Spiegel, 1981
278
11.5
Laptop performer Ikue Mori, 2001
284
12.1
Jean-Claude Risset at Bell Labs, 1968
294
13.1
David Behrman, John King, and Stephen Moore, 2007
319
14.1
Edgard Varèse
333
14.2
Matt Rogalsky
337
14.3
Philips Pavilion at the Brussels World’s Fair, 1958
340
14.4
The architect Le Corbusier with Edgard Varèse, 1958
340
14.5
Early sketch of score for Poème électronique by Varèse
341
14.6
Program for Varèse Town Hall Concert, New York, 1961
343
14.7
John Cage performing Improvisation I—Child of Tree or Branches,
1975
348
14.8
Stockhausen in the Cologne studio, 1966
349
14.9
Stockhausen during a performance of Kurzweillen, 1968
352
14.10
Stockhausen and his troupe at the Osaka World’s Fair, 1970
353
14.11
Wendy Carlos with her two Synergy digital synthesizers, 1986
355
14.12
Wendy Carlos and her latest instrument
358
14.13
Composers of the San Francisco Tape Music Center, 1963
369
14.14
David Tudor with a Buchla 100 at Mills College, 1968
371
15.1
Sonic Arts Union performance, Sveriges Radio, Stockholm,
1971
376
15.2
John Cage, David Tudor, and Gordon Mumma with the Merce
Cunningham Dance Company, 1965
380
15.3
ONCE festival poster
386
15.4
Gordon Mumma performing Hornpipe, 1967
390
15.5
Robert Ashley in his studio, 2001
392
15.6
Alvin Lucier, 2001
393
15.7
David Behrman, 2001
395
15.8
MEV, 1968
396
15.9
AMM, 1968
396
15.10
Annea Lockwood
400
15.11
Tetsu Inoue
402
15.12
Klaus Schulze
404

1EEE
2
3
4
5
6
7
8
9
1022
1
2
3
4
EEE15
6
7
8
9
20
1
2
3
4
5EEE
6
7
8
9
30
1
2
3
4
5
6
7
8
9
40
1
2
3
4
45
46
47EEE

ILLUSTRATIONS
ix

16.1
The Beatles, c.1968
407
16.2
Stan Free’s Hot Butter album, 1973
410
16.3
Synthesizers in music advertisements, early 1970s
410
16.4
Yoko Ono
412
16.5
Paul Tanner and the electro-Theremin, 1958
415
16.6
Gary Numan
418
16.7
Afrika Bambaataa album cover, 2001
421
16.8
Christian Marclay in performance, 2001
422
16.9
Equipment setup for a turntable performance by Christian Marclay
423
16.10
DJ Olive, 2001
424
16.11
Marina Rosenfeld in performance, 2001
425
16.12
Prepared disc by Marina Rosenfeld
426

FIGURES

1.1
Early sketch of the score for Poème électronique by Varèse
4
1.2
Reis Telephone design illustration, 1861
7
1.3
The microphone of the Reis Telephone in the shape of an ear
7
1.4
Gray’s Musical Telegraph, 1875
7
1.5
Gray’s Musical Telegraph patent, 1875
7
1.6
Cahill’s Telharmonium patents, 1917 and 1897
9
1.7
Telharmonium being played in Holyoke, 1906
10
1.8
Images of Telharmonic Hall in New York City, 1908
11
1.9
Ondes Martenot ring mechanism
26
1.10
Hammond Novachord
31
1.11
The Phonoautograph
33
2.1
Sound in three dimensions
46
2.2
The Harmonic Plan
47
2.3
Using musical notation to depict a sound object
48
2.4
Score for Studie II by Karlheinz Stockhausen
64
2.5
Sketch for Stockhausen’s Gesang der Jünglinge
67
2.6
Portion of the score for Berio’s tape piece, Thema–Omaggio a Joyce
71
3.1
The score for Williams Mix by John Cage
84
3.2
Score of Fontana Mix
89
4.1
Score extract showing Minao Shibata’s 12-tone experiments, 1955
107
4.2
NHK Electronic Music Studio schematic
110
4.3
Excerpt from score for Shichi no Variation by Moroi and Mayuzumi
111
4.4
Seventh variation of Shichi no Variation by Moroi and Mayuzumi
111
5.1
Splicing block
125
5.2
Examples of tape splicing techniques
126
5.3
Creating tape echo using a tape recorder
129
5.4
Tape delay setup used by Pauline Oliveros for Beautiful Soop
129
5.5
Simple tape delay setup using tape recorders
133
5.6
FontanaMixer, a real-time software performance program
134
5.7
Matt Rogalsky’s FontanaMixer program
135
5.8
Sketch from Ligeti’s Glissandi showing Fibonacci-like series
139

x
ILLUSTRATIONS

6.1
Schematic for the Olson–Belar composing machine
145
6.2
Schematic for the Olson–Belar RCA Mark II
147
6.3
Components of the RCA Mark II
147
6.4
RCA Mark II worksheet
148
6.5
Punched paper tape used to program the RCA Mark II
149
6.6
Schematic of the Siemens Studio für Elektronische Musik,
1960
158
7.1
Harmonic series for a note played by a string instrument
175
7.2
Harmonic spectra of square and sawtooth waveforms
176
7.3
Harmonic spectra of sine, sawtooth, triangle, and square waves
176
7.4
Combining two waveforms into a new waveform
179
7.5
Frequencies expressed in Hz and related to the musical scale
179
7.6
Elements of a waveform
181
7.7
Phase relationships of two sine waves
182
7.8
Graphic representation of white and pink noise frequency
spectra
183
7.9
Microphone feedback
185
7.10
Setup for a 16-track voltage-controlled sequencer
192
7.11
Band-pass filter and band-reject filter
194
7.12
Envelope characteristics of a sound controlled by a synthesizer
196
7.13
Sample ADSR settings for shaping sounds
196
7.14
Effects of frequency modulation using different waveforms
199
7.15
Schematic for a basic analog synthesizer
202
7.16
Schematic for a basic synthesizer voice module
202
7.17
Signal path
203
7.18
Waveform symbols
203
7.19
Patch symbol
203
7.20
Attenuation symbol
204
7.21
Other miscellaneous symbols
204
7.22
Patch diagram
204
8.1
Moog synthesizer patch diagram used by the author, 1972
221
8.2
MIDI ports and cable
228
8.3
Schematic of MIDI connection between two synthesizers
229
8.4
Schematic of MIDI network of multiple instruments
229
8.5
Schematic of computer-controlled MIDI network
229
8.6
MIDI Note On command sequence
230
9.1
Evolution of electronic organs (1897–1970)
240
9.2
Evolution of electronic pianos (1926–72)
243
9.3
Evolution of analog synthesizers (1945–82)
245
10.1
Score of Metastasis by Iannis Xenakis
256
10.2
Diagram for Turenas by John Chowning
258
11.1
Music Mouse by Laurie Spiegel
279
11.2
Native Instruments Absynth performance screen
283
11.3
Native Instruments Absynth screen for selecting instruments
283
11.4
Arturia virtual Moog Modular software synthesizer
283
11.5
Max/MSP simple sound-generating patch
285
11.6
Native Instruments Kontakt
286

1EEE
2
3
4
5
6
7
8
9
1022
1
2
3
4
EEE15
6
7
8
9
20
1
2
3
4
5EEE
6
7
8
9
30
1
2
3
4
5
6
7
8
9
40
1
2
3
4
45
46
47EEE

ILLUSTRATIONS
xi

11.7
Waldorf Attack
287
11.8
SuperCollider screens for performance setups
289
11.9
SuperCollider screens and windows for functions and instruments
289
12.1
Five basic stages of computer music production
295
12.2
A 16-point sine wave function definition in Csound
298
12.3
Digital sampling of analog sounds
299
12.4
Digital sampling rates
300
12.5
Steps in the sampling of sounds
300
12.6
Typical sound editing software
303
12.7
Combining wavetables to form new sounds
305
12.8
Classic FM synthesis
306
12.9
FM circuit patented by Chowning to create dynamic spectra
307
12.10
Basic waveshaping software instrument
308
12.11
Transfer function
309
12.12
Graphical score for prototype by Curtis Roads
310
13.1
Evolution of computer synthesis software (1957–2003)
321
13.2
Evolution of digital synthesizers (1975–99)
324
13.3
Evolution of audio sampling instruments and software (1917–2007)
326
14.1
Perspectives and traits of electronic music
335
14.2
Handwritten score for Déserts by Varèse
338
14.3
Portion of the score for Davidovsky’s Synchronisms No. 6
345
14.4
Close view of score for Studio II by Stockhausen
345
14.5
Sound spectra analysis by Pierre Schaeffer
346

TABLES

2.1
Audio recording technologies, 1930
43
2.2
Key European electronic music studios, 1948–67
72
3.1
Key North American electronic music studios, 1948–67
98
4.1
Key Japanese electronic music studios, 1948–67
112
5.1
A sketch from Ligeti’s Glissandi
138
5.2
A sketch from Ligeti’s Glissandi showing subsections
138
6.1
Relative frequency of the notes in 11 Stephen Foster songs
143
6.2
Probability of the notes following a two-note sequence in
11 Stephen Foster songs
144
7.1
Electronic music parameters
180
8.1
MIDI channel messages
231
8.2
Control change module assignments
232
11.1
Evolution of computer technology
277
12.1
Common digital audio editing functions
301
12.2
Common digital audio processing functions
302
12.3
MP3 file bit rates and audio quality
313

xii
ILLUSTRATIONS

When the first edition of this text appeared over 20 years ago, the modern history of
electronic music spanned only half as many years as it does today. The interim years
have seen the rise of MIDI as a bridge between analog and digital synthesis and the
adoption of computers as the key ingredient in the creation, editing, and performance
of electronic music. Along with these changes have come many modifications to
Electronic and Experimental Music.
Responding to the suggestions of instructors and students, the third edition includes
key changes to several aspects of the text:

•
New organization—The organization of the text has been improved for teaching
purposes, covering the chronology of electronic music in separate parts devoted to
early history (Part I), analog synthesis (Part II), computer music (Part III), and the
music itself (Part IV).
•
Emphasis on digital synthesis—Four new chapters cover the foundations,
methods, and techniques of computer-based synthesis.
•
Expanded diversity of coverage—Texts in this field usually place their greatest
emphasis on the accomplishments of European and American men in electronic
music. Electronic and Experimental Music uses many opportunities to broaden the
discussion to the compelling and normally under-reported accomplishments of
women, minorities, and composers from other countries in the form of examples,
boxes, and playlists throughout the text.
•
Extensive examples—Electronic music is a field in which innovative ideas and
the ability to think unconventionally are often key to working with new technology.
The third edition greatly expands the use of musical examples to illustrate principles
and techniques in electronic music than can spark discussion and lead to new ideas.
•
Designed for learning—Electronic and Experimental Music is the first text in the
field to incorporate a contemporary pedagogical design based on proven learning
techniques for the classroom. Each chapter is structured for easy access to key ideas,
people, listening examples, and content that is most useful for self-assessment by the
student.

1EEE
2
3
4
5
6
7
8
9
1022
1
2
3
4
EEE15
6
7
8
9
20
1
2
3
4
5EEE
6
7
8
9
30
1
2
3
4
5
6
7
8
9
40
1
2
3
4
45
46
47EEE

Preface and
Acknowledgments

GOALS

If it is true, as conductor Sir Thomas Beecham said, that a musicologist is a person who
can read music but cannot hear it, then what can be said for the musicologist faced with
the field of electronic music? In this field, traditional ways of studying music become
uprooted by a musical endeavor where written scores are often lacking and evolving
technology leads to continual experimentation. Rather than beginning with a score, the
study of electronic music often starts with listening. Even when a score is available for
a work of electronic music, it almost always defies convention, using mathematical
formulae, graphical diagrams, or patching instructions instead of musical notation written
as sheet music. The challenge for a musicologist of electronic music is in helping students
and instructors hear the music and understand the technological and cultural factors behind
the artistic choices made by composers in this field.
Underlying this book are three main goals. My first goal was to provide a thorough
treatment of the relevant history behind the marriage of technology and music that has led
to the state of electronic music today. There are many fundamental techniques and musical
concepts dating from the earliest developments in the field that continue to govern the
making of contemporary electronic music. The transference of these ideas from the world
of analog to digital synthesis continues to motivate composers in the field and influence
the way in which electronic music is made. A grounding in the methods and techniques
of analog and digital pioneers in the field is important and lends valuable context to the
infusion of electronic music in today’s musical culture.
My second goal was to provide a global view of electronic music culture that
celebrates the diversity of men and women in the field. Once considered a largely
academic enterprise funded by research institutions and universities, the field of electronic
music is now within reach of anyone with access to a laptop computer and the urge to
compose. Innovations in electronic music have come from all quarters—not merely the
halls of academia or the research laboratories of telecommunications corporations.
Electronic and Experimental Music draws widely on innovations from the worlds of classical
music, rock, rap, hip-hop, popular music, jazz, modern dance, and music created for
television and radio advertising as some of its sources.
My third goal was to write a book that would be good for students and instructors
alike. This has been accomplished through a reader-friendly writing style, logical
organization, and accessible pedagogical features that provide easy access to key ideas,
milestones, and concepts.

SPECIAL FEATURES

The third edition of Electronic and Experimental Music offers a variety of learning aids
designed to help readers understand and review basic concepts, history, and milestones
in electronic music.

•
Each chapter begins with a reader guide to the major topics included in the chapter.

•
An Innovation box, one or more of which appear in most chapters, provides a
unique profile of an influential individual in the field of electronic music. Many

xiv
PREFACE AND ACKNOWLEDGMENTS