Electrical Instruments / Elektrische Instrumente

544 Pages·1967·11.249 MB·English-German

by  M. Uenohara (auth.), A. E. Pannenborg (eds.)

ENCYCLOPEDIA OF PHYSICS
CHIEF EDITOR
S. FLOGGE
VOLUME XXIII
ELECTRICAL INSTRUMENTS
EDITOR
A. E. PANNENBORG
WITH 391 FIGURES
S P R IN G E R -V E R LA G
BERLIN· HEIDELBERG· NEW YORK
1967
HANDBUCH DER PHYSIK
HERAUSGEGEBEN VON
S. FLOGGE
BAND XXIII
ELEKTRISCHE INSTRUMENTE
BANDHERA U SGEBER
A. E. PANNENBORG
MIT 391 FIG U REN
S P R IN G E R -V E R LA G
BERLIN· HEIDELBERG· NEW YORK
1967
Alle Rech te, insbesondere das der Dbersetzung in frernde Sprachen, vorbehalten
Ohne ausdriickliche Genehrnigung des Verlages ist es auch nicht gestattet, dieses
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oder auf andere Art Zli vervieWiltigen
ISBN-13: 978-3-642-46073-9 e-ISBN-13: 978-3-642-46071-5
DOl: 10.1007/978-3-642-46071-5
© by Springer-Verlag Berlin· Heidelberg 1967
50ftcover reprint of the hardcover I 5t edition 1967
Library of Congress Catalog Card Number A56-2942
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in diesern Werk berechtigt auch ohue besondere Kennzeichnung nicht Zli der
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Titel-Nr. 5761
Inhaltsverzeichnis.
Seite
Low Noise Amplification. By MICHIYUKI UENOHARA, Bell Telephone Labs, Inc.
Murray Hill, New Jersey, USA. (With 71 Figures) ..
I. Introduction. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 1
II. Noise factor, noise temperature and noise measure 3
III. Measurement of low noise temperature 7
IV. Grid control tube and transistor amplifiers. 18
V. Low-noise traveling-wave tube amplifiers 31
VI. Parametric amplifiers . 37
VII. Tunnel diode amplifier 67
VIII. Conclusion. . . . . . 81
Measurement Methods and Instruments for Microwave Frequencies. By Dr. ARTHUR
F. HARVEY, Royal Radar Establishment, Malvern (Great Britain). (With 79 Figures) 84
List of symbols . . . . . . . . 84
I. General principles . . . . . 85
a) Electromagnetic radiation 85
b) Radiation and matter . 88
c) Circuits and components 90
II. Basic electrical quantities . 95
a) Measurement of power. 95
b) Measurement of attenuation 106
c) Measurement of impedance 113
III. Wavelength. . . . . . . . 120
a) Transmission-line methods 120
b) Free-space methods . . 126
IV. Properties of materials . . . 131
a) Dielectric measurements . 131
b) Molecular spectra of gases 141
c) Magnetic-field effects 146
d) Time-dependent phenomena 156
V. Frequency ..... 162
a) Direct measurement . 162
b) Reference standards . 166
VI. Miscellaneous techniques 172
a) Noise measurements. 172
b) Electromagnetic field strength 179
c) Relativity and gravitation 182
References . . . . . . . . . . . . . 185
Messung von Magnetfeldern. Von Dr. phil. nat. HERBERT WEISS, Siemens-Schuckert-
Werke/AG., Forschungslaboratorium Erlangen. (Mit 18 Figuren) 198
Einleitung. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 198
1. Resonanzmethoden . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 198
2. Nichtlinearitat der B-H-Kurve ferromagnetischer Materialien 203
3. Induktionsspulen . . . . . . . . . . . 206
4. Galvanomagnetische Effekte in Halbleitern 207
5. Sonstige Methoden. 214
Literatur. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 215
VI Inhaltsverzeichnis.
Seite
Recording of Measuring Data. By Prof. Dr. Ir. CORNELIS J .D.M. VERHAGEN, Professor
Technological University, Delft (Netherlands) and Ir. JURRIAN FREDERIC VAN TOL,
Member of the Scientific staff, Technological University Delft (Netherlands). (With
40 Figures) . . . . . . . . . . 217
A. Analogue and digital recording 217
B. Means of recording . . . . . 222
C. Analogue recording methods . 230
I. Continuously recording systems . 230
a) Optical recording . . . . 230
aa) Light beam oscillographs. . 231
ab) Cathode ray oscilloscopes. . 238
b) Direct acting and indirect acting recording 249
ba) Direct acting recorders. 249
bb) Indirect acting systems. . . . 251
c) Magnetic recording . . . . . 258
II. Discontinuously recording systems 261
III. Intermittently recording systems . 271
D. Digital recording methods . . . . . . 273
E. Standard recording equipment for a laboratory and outlook. 284
Literature . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 287
Frequency and Time Measurements. By ALAN BAGLEY, Frequency and Time Division
of Hewlett-Packard Corp. Palo Alto, California (United States of America). (With
65 Figures) 289
A. Introduction . . . . . . . . . 289
B. Time and frequency references. 290
I. Time definitions. . . . . 290
II. Epoch and time interval . 292
III. Standard frequency and time signal broadcasts 292
IV. Time synchronization 299
V. Accuracy and stability . 301
a) Accuracy . . . . . 301
b) Long-term stability . 302
c) Short-term stability. 306
d) Factors affecting long-term and short-term stability. 314
VI. Time and .frequency standards 315
a) General . . . . . . . . . 315
b) Quartz frequency standards 317
c) Atomic frequency standards 321
C. Frequency measuring instruments and techniques 328
I. Introduction . . . . . 328
II. Frequency counters . . 329
III. Wavemeters and bridges 342
IV. Ratemeters. . . . . . 345
V. Heterodyne frequency meters 348
VI. Oscilloscope comparisons . . 349
VII. Frequency synthesizers. . . 350
VIII. Mixing, multiplying, and dividing 353
IX. Measurements on resonant systems. 357
D. Time interval measurements 360
I. General ..... . 360
II. Counters . . . . . . 360
III. Other methods of time interval measurement 367
References ................. . 371
Inhaltsverzeichnis. VII
Seite
Temperaturmessung. Von Dipl.-Ing. WALTER HUNSINGER, Hartmann & Braun AG,
Frankfurt a. M. (Mit 40 Figuren) . . . . . . 373
A. Temperaturskala und Thermometerarten. . . . 373
I. Thermodynamische Temperaturskala 373
II. Internationale Praktische Temperaturskala 374
III. Thermometerarten und Begriffe der Thermometrie 378
B. Elektrische Beriihrungsthermometer . 380
I. Thermoelemente . . . . . 380
a) MeBprinzip ..... 380
b) Arten von Thermopaaren 381
c) Aufbau und Ausfiihrung von Thermoelementen. 385
d) Ausgleichsleitungen. . . . . . . . . . . . . 388
e) Konstanthaltung der Vergleichstemperatur 390
f) Rechnerische Beriicksichtigung der Vergleichstemperatur 390
g) Selbsttatige Beriicksichtigung der Vergleichstemperatur 392
II. Widerstandsthermometer mit metallischen MeBfiihlern . 393
a) MeBprinzip und Werkstoffe 393
b) Aufbau und Ausfiihrung 395
c) Erwarmungsfehler . . . . . . . 396
d) EinfluB des Zuleitungswiderstands 397
III. Widerstandsthermometer mit Halbleiter-MeBfiihlern . 399
a) MeBprinzip und Werkstoffe . 399
b) Ausfiihrung und Anwendung ......... . 400
IV. Quarzthermometer . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 401
C. Verfahren und Gerate zur Thermospannungs- und Widerstandsmessung 402
I. Messung der Thermospannung 402
a) Ausschlagsverfahren 402
b) Kompensationsverfahren 408
c) MeBverstarker . . . . 416
II. Messung des Widerstands 419
a) Quotienteninstrumente 419
b) Unvollstandig abgeglichene Briicken 420
c) Abgeglichene Briicken. . . . 423
d) Kompensatoren ...... . 424
D. Einbau von Beriihrungsthermometern . 425
I. Messung im Inneren fester IG:irper. 425
II. Messung an der OberfHiche fester Kiirper . 426
a) An ruhenden Oberflachen 426
b) An bewegten Oberflachen 427
III. Messung in Fliissigkeiten. . 428
IV. Messung in Gasen. . . . . 428
a) Berechnung des Warmeleitungsfehlers . 428
b) Bestimmung des Warmeleitungsfehlers aus Thermometerkennzahlen 431
c) Hinweise zum Kleinhalten des Warmeleitungsfehlers . . . . . " 433
E. Zeitverhalten von Thermometern . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 434
I. Anzeigeverziigerung bei einmaliger pliitzlicher Temperaturanderung COber
gangsfunktion) . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 435
II. Anzeigeverziigerung bei zeitabhangiger Temperaturanderung 440
F. Strahlungspyrometer . . . . . . . . . 441
I. Strahlungsgesetze. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 441
II. Einteilung der Strahlungspyrometer. . . . . . . . . 444
a) Kennzeichnung nach der Art der Strahlungsmessung 444
b) Kennzeichnung nach charakteristischen Pyrometerbauteilen 446
III. Ausfiihrung von Strahlungspyrometern . . . . . . 446
a) Gesamtstrahlungs- und Bandstrahlungspyrometer 446
b) Spektralpyrometer . . . . . . . 450
c) Vertcilungspyrometer ..... . 453
IV. Verhalten von Strahlungspyrometern 454
Literatur 455
VIII Inhaltsverzeichnis.
Seite
Temperaturregelung. Von Dipl.-Ing. FRITZ SCHREINER, Hartmann & Braun AG,
6 Frankfurt a. M. (Mit 78 Figuren) 457
A. Begriffe und Benennungen 457
I. Regelung. . 457
II. Steuerung . . 459
B. Die Regeistrecke . 459
I. Methoden zur Ennittiung und Beschreibung des Signaitibertragungsver-
haltens . . . . . 459
a) Statisches Verhalten . . 460
b) Dynamisches Verhalten . 461
c) Die Differentiaigieichung 465
II. Beispiele flir Temperaturregeistrecken 469
a) Dampfbeheiztes ReaktionsgefaB . 469
b) Erfahrungswerte ftir Temperaturregelstrecken 471
C. Der lineare RegIer. . . . . . . . . . . 471
I. Die Grundtypen der linearenRegler . . . . . . 471
a) Der Proportionairegier (P-RegIer). . . . . . 472
b) Der Proportionairegier mit Differentialanteil (PD-Regler) 473
c) Der Integrairegier . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 474
d) Proportional-Integral-Regler (pI-RegIer) . . . . . . . 474
e) Der Proportional-Integral-Regler mit Differentialanteil (pID-RegIer) 475
II. Geratetechnische Ausftihrung linearer RegIer. . . 475
a) Prinzip der Rtickflihrung . . . . . . . . . . 475
b) Dbersicht tiber die gebrauchlichen Regiertypen. 477
D. Der lineare Regeikreis . . . . . . . . . . 479
1. SchlieBungsbedingung und Gieichungen 479
II. Stabilitatsuntersuchungen . . . . . . 480
a) Allgemeines . . . . . . . . . . . 480
b) Stabilitatsprtifung mit der Differentiaigieichung nach ROUTH-HuRWITZ 481
c) Stabilitatsprlifung mit der Frequenzgangdarstellung 482
III. Einstellung von linearen Regeikreisen 483
a) Aligemeines . . . . . . 483
b) Regelflachenkriterien . . . . . 485
c) Einstellwerte flir RegIer. . . . 486
E. Regelkreise mit nichtlinearen Gliedern . 488
I. Der Zweipunktregler. . . . . . . 488
a) Die Kenniinie des Zweipunktregiers . 488
b) Zweipunktregier an einer Regelstrecke 1. Ordnung mit Totzeit 489
c) Zweipunktregier mit Rtickflihrung . . . . . . . . 493
d) Geratetechnische Ausflihrung von Zweipunktregiern 494
II. Der Dreipunktregier. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 500
a) Blockschaltbild und Zeitverhalten . . . . . . . . 500
b) Besondere Stabilitatsprobleme. . . . . . . . . . 501
c) Geratetechnische Ausflihrung von Dreipunktregiern. 502
III. EinfluB der Stellgliedhysterese auf Stabilitat und Regeigtite 503
F. Beispiele flir Temperaturregelungen . . . . . . . . . . 506
I. Einfache Temperaturregelungen ............ . 506
a) Regelung eines dampfbeheizten ReaktionsgefaBes. . . . 506
b) Zweipunktregelung eines elektrisch beheizten Laborofens 508
c) Dreipunktregelung eines elektrisch beheizten Ofe ns . . . 511
d) Regelung gas-oder oibeheizter Temperaturregeistrecken . 512
II. Vermaschte Temperaturregeikreise . . . . . . . 514
a) Arten der Vermaschung .......... . 514
b) Vermaschungen zur Verbesserung der Regeigtite 515
c) Mehrfachregelung. 518
Symbolliste . . . . . . . . . . . 520
Literatur ........... . 521
Sachverzeichnis (Deutsch-Englisch) . 522
Subject Index (English-German) .. 529
Low Noise Amplification.
By
M. UENOHARA.
With 71 Figures.
I. Introduction.
Much of the recent progress in our understanding of the world around us
was achieved through the ability to detect very weak signals, for example from
outer space, from nerve fibers, or from the ocean floor. To detect these weak
signals, one requires very sensitive receivers, and hence the ability to amplify
these signals without, at the same time, introducing any appreciable amount of
noise.
In the microwave frequency range, this need was especially acute, in particular
for radio astronomy, satellite communications and long range radars. This need
was met by the improvement of well established amplifiers such as the traveling
wave tube, the invention of new ones, such as the maser, and the realization of
low noise parametric amplifiers.
In the study of weak signals, undesirable natural and man-made noise always
becomes associated with the desired signals. Additional noise is added to signal
by the receiver (including detectors and energy converters), and this noise may
mask weak signals which would still have been intelligible if the receiver were
noiseless. Some forms of noise can, at least to some extent, be separated from the
desired signal; however, thermal noise, shot noise and 1/1 noise, which are generated
in most electron devices and are all random, stationary functions of time, appear
to have fundamental lower limits.
Noise - spontaneous fluctuations or emission of energy - is defined in the
International Dictionary of Physics and Electronics as "Any undesired sound.
By extension, noise is any unwanted disturbance within a useful frequency band,
such as undesired electric waves in any transmission channel or device. Such
disturbances when produced by other services are called interference."
The noise sources in amplifiers include one or more of the following:
1. Thermal noise (Johnson noise). This is the noise caused by thermal agitation
in a dissipative body, and is directly proportional to temperature.
2. Shot noise. The fluctuation in the current of charge carriers passing through
a surface at statistically independent times.
3. Flicker noise. The large amount of noise over and above shot noise at low
frequencies. This is often called 1/1 noise, because the noise spectrum is usually
of the form t" with ~ close to unity.
4. Other excess noise. For example: a) In semiconductor devices a large amount
of noise is generated near or at the avalanche breakdown voltage. b) In grid
control tubes, induced grid noise, partition noise, secondary emission noise, ion
noise, and primary emission noise from the control grid are significant sources of
excess noise.
Handbuch der Physik, Ed. XXIII.
2 M. UENOHARA: Low Noise Amplification.
Except for the maser and parametric amplifier, shot noise is generally the
dominant noise source in low noise amplifiers. In the parametric amplifier,
thermal noise, especially that generated in the idler circuit, is the dominant one.
At extremely low frequencies, however, flicker noise generally becomes the domi
nant factor; for this reason, the signal is often first shifted by a low noise converter
to a sufficiently high frequency, where flicker, noise is negligible, before it is
amplified.
There is still another class of noise generated in nonlinear amplifiers. This is
often called coherent noise; crossmodulation and intermodulation signals belong
in this category. Since most low noise amplifiers are low power devices, this
800.--.-.----,----.----,----.----,----,----,--,rnr---,---,
SOO~~H----4----+---_+----r---~--~----+I_-'-: ~ ----hr--~
rJrici-collll'O/lvoe
~oo'e
ITt/nne/
~~OOI----~----_+-----+----_r----~----T_----T---~~~~~--~Hr--~
~
ii!
[JOO~--~---+--~~--+---~--~----+---~~~----~--~
~
'<:::
.~200~--~~r--+-----+-----r----~----+-----+-----r-T--+--~~----~
~
/00 r---+-----'l.-I+--
__ __
O~~_L ~_~ _L_ _L __~ ___~ _~~~~~~~ ___ J
Ie loe I/(e lOX /ooCC'
Fig. 1. Lowest noise temperatures of amplifiers from subaudio frequency to microwave frequency,
class of noise may be of concern if they are improperly operated at high signal
levels. However, for most applications, the signal level is sufficiently low that
this class of noise is not important, and we shall consider it no further.
Low noise amplifiers have been especially intensively studied at microwave
frequencies, since there the sky noise temperature is relatively low. The maser,
low noise traveling-wave tube, and tunnel diode amplifier are practically limited
to microwave applications. The parametric amplifier, on the other hand, can be
operated as a very low noise amplifier from subaudio frequencies to microwave
frequencies. In the intermediate frequency range, grid-control tubes and transistors
are widely used. Fig. 1 shows the lowest noise temperatures practically obtainable
from these amplifiers.
Division 2 contains a definition of the parameters which characterize the nois
iness of amplifiers. The noise factor (noise figure) is one of the parameters and has
been in use for a long time. More recently an "effective input noise temperature"
has gained increased usage for low-noise amplifiers. For practical applications,
the low noise characteristic of an entire system is more important than that of
the component amplifiers. The "operating noise temperature" is, therefore, a
more useful parameter for system characterization. When many amplifiers are
connected in cascade, the over-all system noise temperature is not only a function
of the noise factors of cascaded amplifiers but also of the gains. The" noise meas-
Sect. 1. Noise factor. 3
ure" includes both the noise factor and the gain and defines the ultimate noise
characteristic of the amplifier in systems.
In Division 3 the measurement of noise factor and noise temperature will be
described. The accurate measurement of a low noise temperature is an extremely
difficult task. Great care must be exercised to calibrate every component in the
test set. Various kinds of noise generators as the noise references will be described
and possible sources of measurement errors will be discussed.
In the rest of the chapter, noise characteristics of the control-grid tube ampli
fier, transistor amplifier, traveling-wave tube amplifier, parametric amplifier, and
tunnel-diode amplifier will be discussed and some practical examples will be
presented.
Detailed theoretical derivations will be left to references and only important
formulae will be presented. Since the maser is discussed elsewhere in the Encyclo-·
pedia, the maser will not be covered in this chapter.
II. Noise factor, noise temperature and noise measure.
1. Noise factor. The amplifier whose noise performance is under consideration
here is essentially the linear two-port device. Signals enter the amplifier at the
input port, are amplified internally, and leave the device at its output port. Any
noise input accompanying the signal is also amplified in an identical manner.
Noise generated in the amplifier is an additional noise at the output port that is
independent of the signal and noise input. One measure of the noise performance
of the amplifier is the noise factor (noise figure).
The noise factor of linear noisy amplifier, at a specified input frequency, is
defined1,2 as the ratio of 1) the total noise power per unit bandwidth at a cor
responding output frequency available at the output port when the noise tempera
ture of the input termination is standard (290° K) at all frequencies to 2) that
portion of 1) engendered at the input frequency by the input termination. The
noise factor depends upon the internal noise sources and structure of the amplifier,
but not upon its output termination impedance. Thus
F= No = !!s+Na =1 +!!"-- (1.1 )
Ns ~ ~
where No is the noise output of the amplifier when the input termination is at
290° K, Ns is the output noise component which owes its origin to thermal noise
in the input termination at 2900 K, and Na is that produced by noise sources
internal to the amplifier.
IX) Average noise factor. In any system the signal is distributed over some finite
bandwidth over which both signal and noise time averages may vary with fre
quency. Since the amplifier is assumed to be linear, the noisiness of the amplifier
can be defined by considering the total powers of signal and noise. The average
noise factor is one such measure of noise performance. The average noise factor
is defined 1,2 as the ratio of 1) the total noise power delivered by the transducer
into the output termination when the noise temperature of the input termination
is standard (290° K) at all frequencies to 2) that portion of 1) engendered by the
input termination. For heterodyne systems (and others which associate with
frequency conversion, e.g. a parametric amplifier), 2) includes only that portion
of the noise from the input termination which appears in the output via the
principal-frequency transformation of the system, and does not include any
1 IRE Standard 57 IRE 7. S 2: Proc. IRE 45,1000 (1957).
2 IRE Standard 59 IRE 20. S 1 : Proc. IRE 48, 61 (1960).
1 *