Electric Vehicle Technology Explained

303 Pages·2003·5.173 MB·English

by  James Larminie, John Lowry

Electric Vehicle Technology
Explained
James Larminie
Oxford Brookes University, Oxford, UK
John Lowry
Acenti Designs Ltd., UK
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Contents
Acknowledgments . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . xi
Abbreviations . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . xiii
Symbols. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . xv
1 Introduction . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 1
1.1 A Brief History . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 1
1.1.1 Early days . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 1
1.1.2 Therelative declineof electric vehiclesafter 1910. . . . . . . . 3
1.1.3 Usesforwhichbattery electric vehicleshaveremainedpopular 5
1.2 Developments Towards the End of the 20th Century . . . . . . . . . . . . 5
1.3 Types of Electric Vehicle in Use Today . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 7
1.3.1 Battery electric vehicles . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 8
1.3.2 TheIC engine/electric hybrid vehicle . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 9
1.3.3 Fuelledelectric vehicles. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 15
1.3.4 Electric vehiclesusing supply lines. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 18
1.3.5 Solar poweredvehicles . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 18
1.3.6 Electric vehicleswhichuse flywheelsor super capacitors . . . 18
1.4 Electric Vehicles for the Future . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 20
Bibliography . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 21
2 Batteries . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 23
2.1 Introduction. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 23
2.2 Battery Parameters . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 24
2.2.1 Celland battery voltages . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 24
2.2.2 Charge(or Amphour) capacity . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 25
2.2.3 Energystored . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 26
2.2.4 Specificenergy. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 27
2.2.5 Energydensity . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 27
2.2.6 Specificpower . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 28
2.2.7 Amphour (orcharge)efficiency . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 28
2.2.8 Energyefficiency . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 29
vi Contents
2.2.9 Self-discharge rates. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 29
2.2.10 Battery geometry . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 29
2.2.11 Battery temperature, heating andcooling needs . . . . . . . . . 29
2.2.12 Battery life and numberof deepcycles . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 29
2.3 Lead Acid Batteries . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 30
2.3.1 Leadacid battery basics . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 30
2.3.2 Specialcharacteristics of lead acidbatteries . . . . . . . . . . . 32
2.3.3 Battery life and maintenance. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 34
2.3.4 Battery charging . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 35
2.3.5 Summary of leadacid batteries . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 35
2.4 Nickel-based Batteries. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 35
2.4.1 Introduction . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 35
2.4.2 Nickelcadmium . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 36
2.4.3 Nickelmetal hydride batteries . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 38
2.5 Sodium-based Batteries . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 41
2.5.1 Introduction . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 41
2.5.2 Sodium sulphur batteries . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 41
2.5.3 Sodium metalchloride (Zebra)batteries . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 42
2.6 Lithium Batteries . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 44
2.6.1 Introduction . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 44
2.6.2 Thelithium polymerbattery . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 45
2.6.3 Thelithium ion battery . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 45
2.7 Metal Air Batteries . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 46
2.7.1 Introduction . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 46
2.7.2 Thealuminium air battery . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 46
2.7.3 Thezinc air battery. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 47
2.8 Battery Charging . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 48
2.8.1 Battery chargers. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 48
2.8.2 Chargeequalisation . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 49
2.9 The Designer’s Choice of Battery . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 51
2.9.1 Introduction . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 51
2.9.2 Batteries whichare currently available commercially . . . . . . 52
2.10 Use of Batteries in Hybrid Vehicles . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 53
2.10.1 Introduction . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 53
2.10.2 Internalcombustion/battery electric hybrids . . . . . . . . . . . . 53
2.10.3 Battery/battery electrichybrids . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 53
2.10.4 Combinations using flywheels . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 54
2.10.5 Complexhybrids . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 54
2.11 Battery Modelling . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 54
2.11.1 Thepurpose of battery modelling. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 54
2.11.2 Battery equivalent circuit . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 55
2.11.3 Modelling battery capacity . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 57
2.11.4 Simulation abattery at aset power . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 61
2.11.5 Calculating the PeukertCoefficient . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 64
2.11.6 Approximate battery sizing . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 65
Contents vii
2.12 In Conclusion . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 66
References . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 67
3 Alternative and Novel Energy Sources and Stores. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 69
3.1 Introduction. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 69
3.2 Solar Photovoltaics . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 69
3.3 Wind Power . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 71
3.4 Flywheels . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 72
3.5 Super Capacitors . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 74
3.6 Supply Rails . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 77
References . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 80
4 Fuel Cells. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 81
4.1 Fuel Cells, a Real Option? . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 81
4.2 Hydrogen Fuel Cells: Basic Principles . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 83
4.2.1 Electrode reactions . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 83
4.2.2 Differentelectrolytes . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 84
4.2.3 Fuelcellelectrodes. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 87
4.3 Fuel Cell Thermodynamics – an Introduction. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 89
4.3.1 Fuelcellefficiencyand efficiencylimits. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 89
4.3.2 Efficiencyand the fuel cellvoltage . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 92
4.3.3 Practical fuelcell voltages . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 94
4.3.4 Theeffect ofpressure and gas concentration . . . . . . . . . . . 95
4.4 Connecting Cells in Series – the Bipolar Plate . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 96
4.5 Water Management in the PEM Fuel Cell . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 101
4.5.1 Introduction to the waterproblem . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 101
4.5.2 Theelectrolyte of aPEM fuelcell . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 101
4.5.3 Keepingthe PEM hydrated . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 104
4.6 Thermal Management of the PEM Fuel Cell . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 105
4.7 A Complete Fuel Cell System. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 107
References . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 109
5 Hydrogen Supply . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 111
5.1 Introduction. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 111
5.2 Fuel Reforming . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 113
5.2.1 Fuelcellrequirements . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 113
5.2.2 Steam reforming. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 114
5.2.3 Partial oxidation and autothermal reforming . . . . . . . . . . . 116
5.2.4 Further fuelprocessing: carbonmonoxide removal . . . . . . . 117
5.2.5 Practical fuelprocessing for mobile applications . . . . . . . . 118
5.3 Hydrogen Storage I: Storage as Hydrogen . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 119
5.3.1 Introduction to the problem. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 119
5.3.2 Safety. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 120
5.3.3 Thestorage of hydrogenas a compressedgas. . . . . . . . . . . 120
5.3.4 Storage ofhydrogenas a liquid . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 122
viii Contents
5.3.5 Reversiblemetal hydride hydrogenstores . . . . . . . . . . . . . 124
5.3.6 Carbonnanofibres . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 126
5.3.7 Storage methodscompared . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 127
5.4 Hydrogen Storage II: Chemical Methods. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 127
5.4.1 Introduction . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 127
5.4.2 Methanol . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 128
5.4.3 Alkali metalhydrides. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 130
5.4.4 Sodium borohydride . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 132
5.4.5 Ammonia . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 135
5.4.6 Storage methodscompared . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 138
References . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 138
6 Electric Machines and their Controllers. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 141
6.1 The ‘Brushed’ DC Electric Motor . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 141
6.1.1 Operation of the basic DC motor . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 141
6.1.2 Torque speedcharacteristics . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 143
6.1.3 Controlling the brushedDC motor . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 147
6.1.4 Providing the magnetic field for DC motors . . . . . . . . . . . . 147
6.1.5 DCmotor efficiency . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 149
6.1.6 Motor losses andmotor size . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 151
6.1.7 Electric motors as brakes . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 153
6.2 DC Regulation and Voltage Conversion . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 155
6.2.1 Switchingdevices . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 155
6.2.2 Step-downor‘buck’regulators . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 157
6.2.3 Step-upor ‘boost’ switching regulator . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 159
6.2.4 Single-phase inverters . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 162
6.2.5 Three-phase . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 165
6.3 Brushless Electric Motors . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 166
6.3.1 Introduction . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 166
6.3.2 Thebrushless DC motor . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 167
6.3.3 Switchedreluctancemotors . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 169
6.3.4 Theinduction motor . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 173
6.4 Motor Cooling, Efficiency, Size and Mass. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 175
6.4.1 Improvingmotor efficiency . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 175
6.4.2 Motor mass . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 177
6.5 Electrical Machines for Hybrid Vehicles . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 179
References . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 181
7 Electric Vehicle Modelling . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 183
7.1 Introduction. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 183
7.2 Tractive Effort . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 184
7.2.1 Introduction . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 184
7.2.2 Rolling resistance force . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 184
7.2.3 Aerodynamicdrag . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 185
7.2.4 Hill climbing force . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 185
Contents ix
7.2.5 Accelerationforce. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 185
7.2.6 Total tractive effort . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 187
7.3 Modelling Vehicle Acceleration. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 188
7.3.1 Accelerationperformance parameters. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 188
7.3.2 Modelling the accelerationof an electric scooter . . . . . . . . 189
7.3.3 Modelling the accelerationof a small car . . . . . . . . . . . . . 193
7.4 Modelling Electric Vehicle Range . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 196
7.4.1 Driving cycles . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 196
7.4.2 Range modelling of battery electric vehicles. . . . . . . . . . . . 201
7.4.3 Constant velocity range modelling . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 206
7.4.4 Otheruses of simulations . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 207
7.4.5 Range modelling of fuel cellvehicles . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 208
7.4.6 Range modelling of hybrid electric vehicles . . . . . . . . . . . . 211
7.5 Simulations: a Summary . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 212
References . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 212
8 Design Considerations . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 213
8.1 Introduction. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 213
8.2 Aerodynamic Considerations . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 213
8.2.1 Aerodynamicsandenergy. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 213
8.2.2 Body/chassis aerodynamic shape . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 217
8.3 Consideration of Rolling Resistance . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 218
8.4 Transmission Efficiency . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 220
8.5 Consideration of Vehicle Mass . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 223
8.6 Electric Vehicle Chassis and Body Design. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 226
8.6.1 Body/chassis requirements . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 226
8.6.2 Body/chassis layout. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 227
8.6.3 Body/chassis strength, rigidity and crashresistance . . . . . . . 228
8.6.4 Designing for stability . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 231
8.6.5 Suspension for electric vehicles . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 231
8.6.6 Examplesofchassisusedinmodernbatteryandhybridelectric
vehicles . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 232
8.6.7 Chassis usedin modernfuel cellelectric vehicles . . . . . . . . 232
8.7 General Issues in Design . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 234
8.7.1 Designspecifications. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 234
8.7.2 Software in the use ofelectric vehicle design . . . . . . . . . . . 234
9 Design of Ancillary Systems . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 237
9.1 Introduction. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 237
9.2 Heating and Cooling Systems . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 237
9.3 Design of the Controls . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 240
9.4 Power Steering . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 243
9.5 Choice of Tyres . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 243
9.6 Wing Mirrors, Aerials and Luggage Racks . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 243
9.7 Electric Vehicle Recharging and Refuelling Systems . . . . . . . . . . . . 244
x Contents
10 Electric Vehicles and the Environment. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 245
10.1 Introduction. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 245
10.2 Vehicle Pollution: the Effects . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 245
10.3 Vehicles Pollution: a Quantitative Analysis . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 248
10.4 Vehicle Pollution in Context . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 251
10.5 Alternative and Sustainable Energy Used via the Grid . . . . . . . . . . . 254
10.5.1 Solar energy . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 254
10.5.2 Windenergy . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 255
10.5.3 Hydroenergy. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 255
10.5.4 Tidalenergy . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 255
10.5.5 Biomass energy . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 256
10.5.6 Geothermalenergy . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 257
10.5.7 Nuclearenergy . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 257
10.5.8 Marine currentenergy . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 257
10.5.9 Waveenergy . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 257
10.6 Using Sustainable Energy with Fuelled Vehicles. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 258
10.6.1 Fuelcellsand renewableenergy . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 258
10.6.2 Useof sustainable energywithconventional ICengine vehicles 258
10.7 The Role of Regulations and Law Makers. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 258
References . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 260
11 Case Studies. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 261
11.1 Introduction. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 261
11.2 Rechargeable Battery Vehicles . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 261
11.2.1 Electric bicycles . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 261
11.2.2 Electric mobility aids . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 263
11.2.3 Lowspeedvehicles . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 263
11.2.4 Battery poweredcars and vans . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 266
11.3 Hybrid Vehicles . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 269
11.3.1 TheHonda Insight . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 269
11.3.2 TheToyota Prius . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 271
11.4 Fuel Cell Powered Bus . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 272
11.5 Conclusion . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 275
References . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 277

Appendices: MATLAB Examples . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 279
Appendix 1: Performance Simulation of the GM EV1 . . . . . . . . 279
Appendix 2: Importing and Creating Driving Cycles . . . . . . . . . 280
Appendix 3: Simulating One Cycle . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 282
Appendix 4: Range Simulation of the GM EV1 Electric Car. . . . 284
Appendix 5: Electric Scooter Range Modelling . . . . . . . . . . . . 286
Appendix 6: Fuel Cell Range Simulation . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 288
Appendix 7: Motor Efficiency Plots . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 290
Index . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 293
Acknowledgments
The topic of electric vehicles is rather more interdisciplinary than a consideration of
ordinary internal combustion engine vehicles. It covers many aspects of science and
engineering. This is reflected in the diversity of companies that have helped with advice,
information and pictures for this book. The authors would like to put on record their
thanks to the following companies and organisations that have made this book possible.
Ballard Power Systems Inc., Canada
DaimlerChrysler Corp., USA and Germany
The Ford Motor Co., USA
General Motors Corp., USA
GfE Metalle und Materialien GmbH, Germany
Groupe Enerstat Inc., Canada
Hawker Power Systems Inc., USA
The Honda Motor Co. Ltd.
Johnson Matthey Plc., UK
MAN Nutzfahrzeuge AG, Germany
MES-DEA SA, Switzerland
Micro Compact Car Smart GmbH
National Motor Museum Beaulieu
Parry People Movers Ltd., UK
Paul Scherrer Institute, Switzerland
Peugeot S.A., France
Powabyke Ltd., UK
Richens Mobility Centre, Oxford, UK
Saft Batteries, France
SR Drives Ltd., UK
Toyota Motor Co. Ltd.
Wamfler GmbH, Germany
Zytek Group Ltd., UK
Inaddition we would like to thankfriendsandcolleagueswho haveprovided valuable
comments and advice. We are also indebted to these friends and colleagues, and our
families, who have helped and put up with us while we devoted time and energy to
this project.
James Larminie, Oxford Brookes University, Oxford, UK
John Lowry, Acenti Designs Ltd., UK
Abbreviations
AC Alternating current
BLDC Brushless DC (motor)
BOP Balance of plant
CARB California air resources board
CCGT Combined cycle gas turbine
CNG Compressed natural gas
CPO Catalytic partial oxidation
CVT Continuously variable transmission
DC Direct current
DMFC Direct methanol fuel cell
ECCVT Electronically controlled continuous variable transmission
ECM Electronically commutated motor
EMF Electromotive force
EPA Environmental protection agency
EPS Electric power steering
ETSU Energy technology support unit (a government organisation in the UK)
EUDC Extra-urban driving cycles
EV Electric vehicle
FCV Fuel cell vehicle
FHDS Federal highway driving schedule
FUDS Federal urban driving schedule
GM General Motors
GM EV1 General Motors electric vehicle 1
GNF Graphitic nanofibre
GTO Gate turn off
HEV Hybrid electric vehicle
HHV Higher heating value
IC Internal combustion
ICE Internal combustion engine
IEC International Electrotechnical Commission
IGBT Insulated gate bipolar transistor
IMA Integrated motor assist
IPT Inductive power transfer