Effects of a cognitive processing model on career related gender role attitudes and problem-solving self-efficacy of adolescent females

118 Pages·2002·3.8 MB·English

by  Sharef, Shannon K

EFFECTSOFACOGNITIVEPROCESSINGMODEL
ONCAREERRELATEDGENDERROLEATTITUDESAND
PROBLEM-SOLVINGSELF-EFFICACYOFADOLESCENTFEMALES
By
SHANNONK.SHAREF
ADISSERTATIONPRESENTEDTOTHEGRADUATESCHOOL
OFTHEUNIVERSITYOFFLORIDAINPARTIALFULFILLMENT
OFTHEREQUIREMENTSFORTHEDEGREEOF
DOCTOROFPHILOSOPHY
UNIVERSITYOFFLORIDA
2002
TABLEOFCONTENTS
page
ABSTRACT iv
CHAPTERS
1 INTRODUCTION 1
TheoreticalBasisofSex-RoleBehavior 2
GenderRoleSelfConceptandCareerDevelopment 5
Female'sProblem-SolvingSelf-Efficacy 7
DemographicVariables 8
StatementoftheProblem 9
Purpose 10
NeedfortheStudy 10
Hypotheses 11
DefinitionofTerms 11
2 REVIEWOFTHERELEVANTLITERATURE 13
Gender-RoleSocialization 13
EarlyAdolescentFemale 16
TheoreticalBasisofGenderRoleAppropriateBehavior 19
Cultural-EnvironmentalFactorsAffectingGenderRole-AppropriateBehavior ..26
Gender-RoleSelf-ConceptandCareerDevelopment 28
Career-DevelopmentTasksofEarlyAdolescence 29
RelatedStudies 31
Females'Problem-SolvingAbility 38
CloselyRelatedResearchResults 41
Summar>- 42
3 METHODOLOGY 44
Hypotheses 44
DescriptionofResearchDesign 45
DescriptionofTreatment 45
Treatment 45
Procedure 50
Population 51
ii
DescriptionofAssessmentTechniques
Problem-SolvingInventory—FormC(PSl) 52
PilotStudy 5^
4 DATAANALYSIS ^9
DemographicDataAnalysis
AttitudeVariableforHypotheses#1and#2 65
ProblemSolving1Variable forHypotheses#2and#3 68
ProblemSolvingIIVariable 70
ProblemSolvingIII '72
5 SUMMARYANDDISCUSSION 74
Summary 74
Findings 75
Discussion 76
Limitations 77
PSI-Confidence 77
PSI-ApproachAvoidance 78
PSl-PersonalControl 78
FurtherResearch 79
APPENDICES
A TREATMENT 81
B QUESTIONSFORSESSIONII 88
C LETTERTOSUPERINTENDENT 90
D LETTERTOPRINCIPALS 92
E PARENTCONSENTFORM 94
F DEMOGRAPHICDATASHEET 96
G REQUESTPERMISSIONTOUSEINSTRUMENTS 98
REFERENCES 100
BIOGRAPHICALSKETCH 109
iii
AbstractofDissertationPresentedtotheGraduateSchool
oftheUniversityofFloridainPartialFulfillmentofthe
RequirementsfortheDegreeofDoctorofPhilosophy
EFFECTSOFACOGNITIVEPROCESSINGMODEL
ONCAREERRELATEDGENDERROLEATTITUDESAND
PROBLEM-SOLVINGSELF-EFFICACYOFADOLESCENTFEMALES
By
ShannonK.Sharef
May2002
Chair:MaryHoward-Hamilton
MajorDepartment:CounselorEducation
Thedatafromthisstudymaycontributesignificantlytothedevelopmentof
vocationaltheoriesappropriatetothefemalepopulationstudiedaswellasassistin
definingtheapplicabilityofcurrentlyappliedcareerdevelopmenttheoriestowomen.
Thefindingsmayprovidearesearchfocusonthefactorsmeaningfiilinthecareer
developmentofwomenandintheirsuccessfulimplementationofcareers.
Inaddition,theprofessionalpracticeofeducatorsmaybeenhancedbyincreased
knowledgeacquiredregardingthecareerdevelopmentneedsoffemales. Forexample,
schoolcounselors'identifyingappropriategoalsforguidanceprograms,strategies
selection,programdevelopment,identifyingresourcesandactivitiesmaybeimproved.
Theresultsmayalsohelpteachersincreasetheirsensitivitytothespecialneedsoffemale
students. Also,theirchoicesofinstructionalstrategiesmaybeimpacted. Additionally,
schooladministratorswhohaveacquiredsuchknowledgemaybemorelikelytoprovide
iv
thenecessarysupportforsuccessfulimplementationofnewprogramsandformaking
changesincurrentlyimplementedones. Further,thisinterventionhaspositively
impactedhundredsofgirlsinruralcommunitiesinthestateofFlorida.
V
CHAPTER
1
INTRODUCTION
Recentsocietalchanges,includingshiftsintheeconomy,increasedemployment
opportunitiesforwomen,changesinthefamilystructure,andchangingsocietalnorms,
havecreatedaneedforagreaterbaseofinformationaboutcareerdevelopmentinregard
togender-baseddifferences.
Thefamilyinwesterncultureisundergoingarapidchangefromthetraditional
familypatterninwhichthehusbandwastheprimarybread-winnertothedual-worker
andsingle-femaleheadedhouseholdarrangements(Amatea,Clark,&Cross,1982a;
Pamell,1994;U.S.BureauoftheCensus,1986,1989,1992,1993). Familieshave
experienceddifficulties. Includedarewomenadaptingtochangingnormsthatinclude
roleoverloadandmergingpersonalsex-roledefinitionswithcareerandfamilyrolesand
socioculturaldefinitionsofwhatisconsideredmasculineandfeminine(Amatea,Clark,
&Cross,1982b;Bandura,1986a;CenterforPopulationOptions,1989).
Earlyadolescenceisanimportantperiodinthedevelopmentofanidentitythatis
congruentwitheventualworkinterests(Weame,1991). AccordingtoErikson,failureto
dosomayresultinaninabilitytodevelopafocusedcareerpath. Unfortunately,efforts
toachievethisgoalmayruncountertobehaviorsassociatedwithcareergoals(Amateaet
al,1982a;Bandura,1986a;CenterforPopulationOptions,1989;Sadker&Sadker,
1994).
1
2
Stressongenderroledifferentiationoftenincreasesatpuberty. Also,peer
influenceoftendominatesduringearlyadolescence. Aresultofthissituationisa
meaningftilincreaseinpregnanciesamongteenagegirlsresultinginapproximately1
millionadolescentgirlsbecomingpregnanteachyear. Fiftypercentofthesepregnancies
resultinlivebirths. Thistranslatesintoone-fifthofallbirthsintheUnitedStatesinany
givenyear.Asmanyas80%ofadolescentmothersdropoutofschoolandneverreturn
(CenterforPopulationOptions,1989;Crooks&Baur,1990;Pamell,1994;Sadker&
Sadker,1994).
Thelong-termconsequencesofthedifferentialtimingofmarriageand
childbearingorchildbearingalonemaybethesinglebestpredictorofeducational
attainmentbywomen. Thatiseducationallevelpredictssocioeconomicposition,
income,andoccupation(Grindstaff,1986;Pamell,1994;Sadker&Sadker,1994).
TheoreticalBasisofSex-RoleBehavior
Choicesleadingtosex-rolebehaviorcanbeexplainedfrombothbiologicaland
socioculturalperspectives. Geneticsandhormonesdeterminebiologicalsex,and
contributetospecificbehavioraldifferencessuchasdominanceandaggressioninmales
andthereproductivecapacityoffemales(Grusec&Lytton,1988). Also,biological
factorsmayinfluencecertainskillssuchasmathematicalabilityandverbalability(Spiel,
1997). However,culturalnormsstronglymediatethedevelopmentofgender-based
roles. Varioustheoreticalperspectivesdescribetheprocessesthatresultinindividuals
behavinginsexroleappropriatemanners.
Freud(citedinSiegler,1978)addressedgenderidentificationandsex-role
appropriatebehaviors. Hearticulatedatheoryofpsychosexualdevelopmentintheearly
1900s. Hedescribedthechild'spassingthroughfourstagesofpsychosexual
3
development,withaperiodoflatencybetweenthethirdandfourthstages. Stageswere
definedbythedifferentpartsofthebodythatprovidedsexual(libidinal)gratification
throughouttheearlyyearsoflife. ItisduringFreud'sphallicstage,thatbeginsaround
theageofthreeyears,thatgenderidentificationandtheinternalizationofthesame-sexed
parent'ssexrolebehaviorsoccur. AccordingtoFreud,duringthephallicstageboys
experiencetheOedipuscomplexandgirlsexperiencetheElectracomplex. Thisresults
inchildren'sidentificationwiththelike-sexedparentandtheadoptionofappropriatesex
roles.
Later,contemporarytheoristsappliedcognitivedevelopmentaltheory,social
leamingtheory,andgenderschemetheorytothedevelopmentofgenderidentityand
adaptationtothesex-baseddivisionofroles(Festinger,1957;Kohlberg,1966;Martin&
Halverson,1981).
Genderidentitymaybeconceptualizedasathreestageprocessofgender
labeling,genderstability,andgenderconstancy. Genderlabelingoccursbetween2-1/2
and3yearsofage. Childrenareabletoaccuratelylabeltheirsexandthatofothers.
However,thegenderascribedtoothersisdependentonsuperficialfeaturessuchas
clothesandhair. Childrenatthisstagedonotunderstandthepermanencyofgender
differences.
Genderstabilitybeginsatabout3-1/2yearsofageandlastsuntilchildrenare
about5yearsold. Childrenunderstandthatgenderisarelativelyenduringcharacteristic.
However,theystillbelievethatgendercanbechangedbychangingbehavioror
appearances. Betweentheagesof5and7years,childrencometounderstandthe
permanenceoftheirgenders,thatis,theydevelopgenderconstancy(Kohlberg,1966).
4
Kohlberg,aproponentofthecognitivedevelopmentaltheoryofgenderidentity,
assertedthatchildrenobservesamesexmodelspreferentiallyimitatingthembecause
theyperceivethemasbeingsimilartothemselvesandbecausethosebehaviorsare
consistantwiththeirself-conceptandsexualself-identities. Kohlbergassertedthat
modelingcanbeeffectiveonlywhensex-rolecategorizationhastakenplace. Thatis,
thiscanoccurwhengenderconstancyhasbeenachieved(Kohlberg,1966).
Accordingtosociallearningtheory(Grusec&Lytton,1988)genderidentityand
sex-roleappropriatebehaviorisprimarilytheresultofobservingsocialandcultural
modelsandoftheinfluencestowhichthechildisexposedduringearlydevelopment.
Frombirth,childrenaretreateddifferentlyinamannerconsistentwithgender-role
expectation(Sedney,1987,citedinGrusec&Lytton,1988).Parentsmodelandreinforce
thosebehaviorsthatthechildcomestoknowasappropriateforone'ssex. And,they
oftenpunishthosebehaviorsthattheyconsiderinappropriate.
Schematicprocessingtheory(Martin&Halverson,1981)isbasedonthepremise
thatyoungchildrenlearnalabelfortheirgenderfromtheirenvironment. Theybeginto
formulatestereotypicnotionsofwhataremasculineandfemininebehaviors. Fromthese
notions,childrendevelopgenderschemesthattheyusetoorganizeandguidetheir
interpretationsofgender-relatedbehaviors. Childrenbegintoattendtobehaviorthatis
consistentwiththeirowngenderlabels. Thisresultsintheirbehavinginwaysconsistent
withtheirowngenders.
Congruentwithschematicprocessingtheory,KaganandMoss(1962)articulated
ananxietyreductionmotiveunderlyingsex-roleappropriatebehavior.
Sex-roleidentificationdirectstheselectiveadoptionandmaintenanceofseveral
behaviordomains. Theexpressionofaggression,competitiveness,passivity,
dependency,orsexualityisdetermined,inpart,bytheindividual'sassessmentof
.
5
thecongruenceofthebehaviorwithtraditionalsex-rolestandards. Many
individualsaremotivatedtobehaveinawaythatiscongruentwithahypothetical
egoidealoridealizedmodelthatembodiestheessentialqualitiesofmasculinity
orfemininity. Thismotive-likeFestinger's(1957)constructofcognitive
dissonancevs.consonance-locatesboththegoalstateaswellastheincentive
conditionsinthecognitivesystemoftheindividualratherthanintheoutside
world...
Perhapsuniquetohumansisaneed—toactandtobelieveinwaysthatare
congruentwithpreviouslyestablishedstandards. Theincentiveandgoalstimuli
forthismotivearenotalwaysexternaleventsbutevaluationsofthematch
betweenabelieforproposedresponseandaninternalizedstandard....Any
behaviororbeliefthatincreasesthediscrepancybetweentheindividual's
evaluationofhimselfandhisidealizedmodelprovokesanxietyandislikelytobe
shunned;anybehaviorthatdecreasesthediscrepancybetweentheevaluationof
selfandmodelisrewardingandislikelytobepracticed,(p.281)
ErikEriksonconceptualizedeightdevelopmentalstagesbasedonbiologicaland
onpsychosexualinfluencesemphasizingsocialfactors. Identityversusroleconfusionis
Erikson'sfifthstage. Thisoccursduringadolescence,focusedontheneedtodevelopa
senseofidentityincludingreformulatingpsychosexualissuesassociatedwithsex-role
appropriatebehaviors(Liebert&Speigler,1990).
Thereisevidencesupportinganinteractionbetweenbiologicalforcesand
cultural-environmentalfactorsinthedevelopmentofgenderidentityandtheadoptionof
sexroleappropriatebehavior. Childrenbegintolearnfromtheirculture,almostfrom
birth,whatbehaviorsandbeliefsareacceptableforpeopleonthebasisofsex. And,they
becomedeeplyembeddedinone'sidentity. Tobehaveinconsistentlywiththese
constmctsarousesanxietyand,thus,avoided. Conversely,thosemodelsidealizedare
emulated.
GenderRoleSelfConceptandCareerDevelopment
Super(1957)studiedtheroleofself-conceptincareerdevelopmentandsuggested
thatacareerchoicewasa"searchforanoccupationalidentity-astrivingforan