Education at a Glance 2016 : OECD Indicators.

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Education at a Glance 2016
OECD INDICATORS
Education
Education

Education at a Glance
2016
OECD INDICATORS
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Please cite this publication as:
OECD (2016), Education at a Glance 2016: OECD Indicators, OECD Publishing, Paris.
http://dx.doi.org/10.187/eag-2016-en
ISBN (print) 978-92-64-25979-9
ISBN (PDF) 978-92-64-25980-5
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FOREWORD
Governments are increasingly looking to international comparisons of education opportunities and outcomes as
they develop policies to enhance individuals’ social and economic prospects, provide incentives for greater efficiency
in schooling, and help to mobilise resources to meet rising demands. The OECD Directorate for Education and Skills
contributes to these efforts by developing and analysing the quantitative, internationally comparable indicators that
it publishes annually in Education at a Glance. Together with OECD country policy reviews, these indicators can be
used to assist governments in building more effective and equitable education systems.
Education at a Glance addresses the needs of a range of users, from governments seeking to learn policy lessons to
academics requiring data for further analysis to the general public wanting to monitor how its country’s schools
are progressing in producing world-class students. The publication examines the quality of learning outcomes, the
policy levers and contextual factors that shape these outcomes, and the broader private and social returns that
accrue to investments in education.
Education at a Glance is the product of a long-standing, collaborative effort between OECD governments, the experts
and institutions working within the framework of the OECD Indicators of Education Systems (INES) programme
and the OECD Secretariat. The publication was prepared by the staff of the Innovation and Measuring Progress
Division of the OECD Directorate for Education and Skills, under the responsibility of Dirk Van Damme and
Corinne Heckmann, and in co-operation with Étienne Albiser, Diogo Amaro de Paula, Rodrigo Castañeda Valle,
Éric Charbonnier, João Collet, Rie Fujisawa, William Herrera Penagos, Soumaya Maghnouj, Gabriele Marconi,
Camila de Moraes, Simon Normandeau, Joris Ranchin, Cuauhtémoc Rebolledo Gómez, Gara Rojas González
and Markus Schwabe. Administrative support was provided by Laetitia Dehelle, and additional advice as well as
analytical support were provided by Anithasree Athiyaman, Marie-Hélène Doumet, Michael Jacobs, Karinne Logez,
Martha Rozsi, Giovanni Maria Semeraro, Cailyn Torpie and Benedikt Weiß. Marilyn Achiron, Marika Boiron,
Cassandra Davis and Sophie Limoges provided valuable support in the editorial and production process. The
development of the publication was steered by member countries through the INES Working Party and facilitated
by the INES Networks. The members of the various bodies as well as the individual experts who have contributed to
this publication and to OECD INES more generally are listed at the end of the book.
While much progress has been accomplished in recent years, member countries and the OECD continue to strive
to strengthen the link between policy needs and the best available internationally comparable data. This presents
various challenges and trade-offs. First, the indicators need to respond to education issues that are high on
national policy agendas, and where the international comparative perspective can offer added value to what can
be accomplished through national analysis and evaluation. Second, while the indicators should be as comparable
as possible, they also need to be as country-specific as is necessary to allow for historical, systemic and cultural
differences between countries. Third, the indicators need to be presented in as straightforward a manner as possible,
while remaining sufficiently complex to reflect multi-faceted realities. Fourth, there is a general desire to keep the
indicator set as small as possible, but it needs to be large enough to be useful to policy makers across countries that
face different challenges in education.
The OECD will continue not only to address these challenges vigorously and develop indicators in areas where
it is feasible and promising to develop data, but also to advance in areas where a considerable investment still
needs to be made in conceptual work. The OECD Programme for International Student Assessment (PISA) and its
extension through the Survey of Adult Skills, a product of the Programme for the International Assessment of Adult
Competencies (PIAAC), as well as the OECD Teaching and Learning International Survey (TALIS), are major efforts
to this end.
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Education at a Glance 2016: OECD Indicators © OECD 2016

TABLE OF CONTENTS
Name of
the indicator
in the
2015 edition
Editorial .......................................................................................................................................................................................................................................................................13
Introduction: The Indicators and their Framework .......................................................................................................................................17
Reader’s Guide ....................................................................................................................................................................................................................................................21
About the new ISCED 2011 classification ....................................................................................................................................................................25
Executive Summary .....................................................................................................................................................................................................................................29
CHAPTER A THE OUTPUT OF EDUCATIONAL INSTITUTIONS AND THE IMPACT
OF LEARNING...................................................................................................................................................................................................31
Indicator A1 To what level have adults studied? ...................................................................................................................................32 A1
Table A1.1. Educational attainment of 25-64 year-olds (2015) ...............................................................................................41
Table A1.2. Percentage of adults who have attained tertiary education,
by type of programme and age group (2015) ................................................................................................................42
Table A1.3. Trends in educational attainment, by age group (2005 and 2015) ...................................................43
Table A1.4. Educational attainment of 25-34 year-olds, by programme orientation (2015) .............44
Table A1.5. Field of education studied among tertiary-educated adults,
by gender (2012 or 2015) .......................................................................................................................................................................45
Indicator A2 How many students are expected to complete upper secondary education? .......46 A2
Table A2.1. Upper secondary and post-secondary non-tertiary graduation rates (2014) ......................56
Table A2.2. Profile of upper secondary graduates from general and vocational programmes
(2014) ..............................................................................................................................................................................................................................57
Table A2.3. Profile of post-secondary non-tertiary graduates from vocational programmes
(2014) ..............................................................................................................................................................................................................................58
Table A2.4. Trends in upper secondary and post-secondary non-tertiary graduation rates
(2005, 2010 and 2014) ..............................................................................................................................................................................59
Indicator A3 How many young people are expected to complete tertiary education
and what is their profile? ................................................................................................................................................................60 A3
Table A3.1. First-time graduation rates, by tertiary level (2014) ...........................................................................................68
Table A3.2. Profile of a first-time tertiary graduate (2014) ..........................................................................................................69
Table A3.3. Gender ratio for all tertiary graduates, by field of education (2014) ..............................................70
Table A3.4. Percentage of female, international first-time graduates and average age,
by tertiary level (2014) ..............................................................................................................................................................................71
Table A3.5. Percentage of all students and international students who graduate from sciences
and engineering programmes, by tertiary level (2014) ....................................................................................72
Table A3.6. Trends in first-time graduation rates, by tertiary levels (2005, 2010, 2014) ......................73
Indicator A4 To what extent does parents’ background influence
educational attainment? ..................................................................................................................................................................74 A4
Table A4.1. Percentage of 25-44 year-olds with native-born and foreign-born parents,
by educational attainment (2012 or 2015) ......................................................................................................................83
Table A4.2. Parents’ educational attainment, by parents’ immigrant status (2012 or 2015) ............84
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Education at a Glance 2016: OECD Indicators © OECD 2016
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Name of
the indicator
in the
2015 edition
Table A4.3. Intergenerational mobility in education, by parents’ educational attainment
and immigrant status (2012 or 2015) ....................................................................................................................................85
Table A4.4. Intergenerational mobility in education, by father’s and mother’s
educational attainment (2012 or 2015)...............................................................................................................................88
Indicator A5 How does educational attainment affect participation
in the labour market? ............................................................................................................................................................................90 A5
Table A5.1. Employment rates, by educational attainment (2015) .................................................................................103
Table A5.2. Unemployment rates, by educational attainment (2015) .........................................................................104
Table A5.3. Trends in employment rates, by educational attainment and age group
(2005 and 2015) .............................................................................................................................................................................................105
Table A5.4. Trends in unemployment rates, by educational attainment and age group
(2005 and 2015) .............................................................................................................................................................................................106
Table A5.5. Employment, unemployment and inactivity rates of 25-34 year-olds,
by programme orientation and educational attainment (2015) .......................................................107
Table A5.6. Employment rates of tertiary-educated adults, by field of education studied
and gender (2012 or 2015) ...............................................................................................................................................................108
Table A5.7. Frequency of use of information and communication technologies at work,
by educational attainment (2012 or 2015) ..................................................................................................................109
Table A5.8. Proficiency, use and need of information and communication technologies
at work, by main industry (2012 or 2015) ...................................................................................................................110
Table A5.9. (L)  Mean literacy score, by occupation and level of education (2012 or 2015) ........................112
Indicator A6 What are the earnings advantages from education? ........................................................................114 A6
Table A6.1. Relative earnings of full-time full-year workers,
by educational attainment (2014) ...........................................................................................................................................125
Table A6.2. Differences in earnings between female and male workers,
by educational attainment and age group (2014)................................................................................................126
Table A6.3. Percentage of full-time, full-year earners, part-time earners and people
with no earnings, by educational attainment (2014) .....................................................................................127
Table A6.4. Mean monthly earnings of tertiary-educated adults,
by field of education studied and gender (2012 or 2015) .........................................................................130
Indicator A7 What are the financial incentives to invest in education? .......................................................134 A7
Table A7.1a. Private costs and benefits for a man attaining upper secondary
or post-secondary non-tertiary education (2012) ..............................................................................................145
Table A7.1b. Private costs and benefits for a woman attaining upper secondary
or post-secondary non-tertiary education (2012) ..............................................................................................146
Table A7.2a. Public costs and benefits for a man attaining upper secondary
or post-secondary non-tertiary education (2012) ..............................................................................................147
Table A7.2b. Public costs and benefits for a woman attaining upper secondary
or post-secondary non-tertiary education (2012) ..............................................................................................148
Table A7.3a. Private costs and benefits for a man attaining tertiary education (2012) ...........................149
Table A7.3b. Private costs and benefits for a woman attaining tertiary education (2012) ..................150
Table A7.4a. Public costs and benefits for a man attaining tertiary education (2012) ..............................151
Table A7.4b. Public costs and benefits for a woman attaining tertiary education (2012) .....................152
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the indicator
in the
2015 edition
Indicator A8 How are social outcomes related to education? ........................................................................................154 A8
Table A8.1 (L). Percentage of adults reporting that they are in good health,
by educational attainment, literacy proficiency level and gender (2012 or 2015) ..........163
Table A8.2a. Percentage of adults reporting activity limitation due to health problem,
by educational attainment and age group (2014)................................................................................................164
Table A8.3a. Life satisfaction today and in 5 years, by educational attainment (2015) ...........................165
Indicator A9 How many students complete tertiary education? .............................................................................166
Table A9.1. Completion rate of full-time students by level of education, gender,
method and duration (2014) ..........................................................................................................................................................175
Table A9.2. Distribution of full-time students who entered a given educational level,
by theoretical duration (N) and theoretical duration
plus three years (N + 3) (2014) ....................................................................................................................................................176
CHAPTER B FINANCIAL AND HUMAN RESOURCES INVESTED IN EDUCATION .......................177
Indicator B1 How much is spent per student? ......................................................................................................................................180 B1
Table B1.1. Annual expenditure per student by educational institutions
for all services (2013) ..............................................................................................................................................................................192
Table B1.2. Annual expenditure per student by educational institutions for core educational
services, ancillary services and R&D (2013) ..............................................................................................................193
Table B1.3. Cumulative expenditure per student by educational institutions
over the expected duration of primary and secondary studies (2013) ................................194
Table B1.4. Annual expenditure per student by educational institutions for all services,
relative to per capita GDP (2013) .............................................................................................................................................195
Table B1.5a. Change in expenditure per student by educational institutions for all services,
relative to different factors, at the primary, secondary and post-secondary
non-tertiary levels of education (2005, 2008, 2010, 2011, 2012, 2013) ..............................196
Table B1.5b. Change in expenditure per student by tertiary educational institutions
for all services, relative to different factors
(2005, 2008, 2010, 2011, 2012, 2013)..............................................................................................................................197
Indicator B2 What proportion of national wealth is spent on education? ...............................................198 B2
Table B2.1. Expenditure on educational institutions as a percentage of GDP,
by level of education (2013) ............................................................................................................................................................205
Table B2.2. Trends in expenditure on educational institutions as a percentage of GDP,
by level of education (2005, 2008, 2010, 2011, 2012, 2013) ...............................................................206
Table B2.3. Expenditure on educational institutions as a percentage of GDP,
by source of funding and level of education (2013) ..........................................................................................207
Table B2.4. Change in public expenditure on educational institutions
as a percentage of GDP (2008, 2010, 2013) ................................................................................................................208
Indicator B3 How much public and private investment in education is there? .................................210 B3
Table B3.1a. Relative proportions of public and private expenditure on educational institutions,
by level of education (2013) ............................................................................................................................................................217
Table B3.1b. Relative proportions of disaggregated public and private expenditure
on educational institutions, by level of education (2013) ........................................................................218
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Name of
the indicator
in the
2015 edition
Table B3.2a. Trends in the relative proportion of public expenditure on educational
institutions and index of change in public and private expenditure, at primary,
secondary, post-secondary non-tertiary level (2005, 2008, 2010 to 2013) .......................219
Table B3.2b. Trends in the relative proportion of public expenditure
on tertiary educational institutions and index of change in public
and private expenditure (2005, 2008, 2010 to 2013) ....................................................................................220
Table B3.3. Annual public expenditure on educational institutions per student,
by type of institution (2013) ..........................................................................................................................................................221
Indicator B4 What is the total public spending on education? ...................................................................................222 B4
Table B4.1. Total public expenditure on education (2013).........................................................................................................230
Table B4.2. Trends in total public expenditure on primary to tertiary education
(2005, 2008, 2010 and 2013) ........................................................................................................................................................231
Table B4.3. Share of sources of public funds by level of government (2013)......................................................232
Indicator B5 How much do tertiary students pay and what public support
do they receive? ..........................................................................................................................................................................................234 B5
Table B5.1. Estimated annual average tuition fees charged by educational institutions
(short-cycle tertiary, bachelor’s and master’s or equivalent levels) (2013/14) ..............243
Table B5.2. Estimated index of changes in the tuition fees charged by educational institutions
(ISCED levels 5 to 7) and reforms related to tuition fees implemented
in recent years on tertiary education (2013/14)...................................................................................................245
Table B5.3. Estimated annual average tuition fees charged by educational institutions
for foreign students (2013/14) ...................................................................................................................................................247
Table B5.4. Public loans to students in tertiary education (2013/14) and trends in the number
of beneficiaries (2004/05 and 2014/15) .........................................................................................................................249
Table B5.5. Repayment and remission of public loans to students in bachelor’s, master’s,
doctoral or equivalent programmes (academic year 2013/14) ...........................................................252
Indicator B6 On what resources and services is education funding spent? ............................................254 B6
Table B6.1. Share of current and capital expenditure by education level (2013) ...........................................259
Table B6.2. Distribution of current expenditure by resource category (2013) .................................................260
Table B6.3. Share of current expenditure by resource category and type of institution (2013) ......261
Indicator B7 Which factors influence the level of expenditure on education? ..................................262 B7
Table B7.1. Salary cost of teachers per student, by level of education (2014) .................................................271
Table B7.2a. Factors used to compute the salary cost of teachers per student
in public institutions, in primary education (2010 and 2014) ...........................................................272
Table B7.2b. Factors used to compute the salary cost of teachers per student
in public institutions, in lower secondary education (2010 and 2014) ..................................274
Table B7.2c. Factors used to compute the salary cost of teachers per student
in public institutions, in upper secondary education (2014)................................................................276
Table B7.3. Contribution of various factors to salary cost of teachers per student
in primary education (2014) ..........................................................................................................................................................277
Table B7.4. Contribution of various factors to salary cost of teachers per student
in  lower secondary education (2014) .................................................................................................................................278
Table B7.5. Contribution of various factors to salary cost of teachers per student
in upper secondary education (2014) .................................................................................................................................279
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Education at a Glance 2016: OECD Indicators © OECD 2016