Edible and medicinal mushrooms : technology and applications

585 Pages·2017·33.314 MB·English

by  Diego Cunha Zied, Arturo Pardo-Giménez

Edible and Medicinal Mushrooms
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Edible and Medicinal Mushrooms
Technology and Applications
Edited by
Diego Cunha Zied
Universidade Estadual Paulista (UNESP), Brazil
Arturo Pardo-Giménez
Centro de Investigación, Experimentación y Servicios del Champiñón (CIES), Spain
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This edition first published 2017
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Contents
List of Contributors xix
Acknowledgments xxiii
Preface xxv
1 Mushrooms and Human Civilization 1
Behari Lal Dhar
1.1 Domestication of Mushrooms 2
References 3
2 Current Overview of Mushroom Production in the World 5
Daniel J. Royse, Johan Baars and Qi Tan
2.1 Lentinula edodes 6
2.2 Pleurotus spp. 8
2.3 Auricularia spp. 10
2.4 Agaricus bisporus 10
2.5 Flammulina velutipes 11
2.6 Outlook 11
References 12
3 Mushrooms: Biology and Life Cycle 15
Eustáquio Souza Dias and Manuela Rocha de Brito
3.1 Life Cycle of Fungi 15
3.2 The Subkingdom Dykaria 17
3.2.1 Dikaryosis: Concepts 17
3.3 Homothallism, Heterothallism, and Amphithallism 18
3.4 Heterothallism 19
3.5 Homothallism 19
3.6 Amphithallism 20
3.7 Mating-Type Genes 21
3.8 Agaricus brasiliensis (Syn = A. subrufescens or A. blazei): An Intriguing Example
of Amphithallism 22
3.9 Life Cycle of Uncultivated Mushrooms 24
3.10 The Truffles 25
3.11 Morels 25
3.12 The Chanterelles 26
3.13 The Matsutake 27
3.14 Porcini 27
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vi Contents
3.15 Decreased Production of Mycorrhizal Mushrooms in the Northern
Hemisphere 28
3.16 Fitness of Filamentous Fungi 28
3.17 Final Considerations 30
References 31
4 Genetic Aspects and Strategies for Obtaining Hybrids 35
Manjit Singh and Shwet Kamal
4.1 Agaricus bisporus 36
4.1.1 Introduction 36
4.1.2 Understanding Reproductive Biology 37
4.1.2.1 Different Mating Systems in the Genus Agaricus 39
4.1.2.2 Different Mating Systems within Agaricus bisporus 39
4.1.3 Understanding and Collecting Variability 41
4.1.3.1 Distribution 41
4.1.3.2 Germplasm Collection 42
4.1.3.3 Natural Variability 42
4.1.4 Utilizing Variability 43
4.1.4.1 Direct Selection of Natural Variants 43
4.1.4.2 Tissue Culture, Multispore, and Single Spore Cultures 43
4.1.4.3 Mutations by Ionizing Radiation or Chemical Mutagens 45
4.1.4.4 Strain Mixing to Achieve Hybridization 45
4.1.5 Exploiting Variability Through Hybridization 45
4.1.5.1 Genetic Parameters: Heritability, Combining Ability, and So On 47
4.1.5.2 Genome Analysis 47
4.1.5.3 Variation in Isoenzymes, RAPD, RFLP, and Other Molecular Traits 48
4.1.6 Identification of Parental Strain 48
4.1.6.1 Economically Important Traits 48
4.1.6.1.1 Yield and Fruit Morphology 49
4.1.6.1.2 Cap Color 49
4.1.6.1.3 Bruising Sensitivity 50
4.1.6.1.4 Disease Resistance 50
4.1.6.1.5 Temperature Tolerance 51
4.1.7 Production and Identification of Homokaryons 51
4.1.7.1 Use of Non‐Fertility as a Marker in Single Spore Isolates 51
4.1.7.2 Micromanipulation 51
4.1.7.3 Growth Rate and Downward Linear Growth on Compost 51
4.1.7.4 Environmental Factors Enhancing Tetrasporic Basidia 52
4.1.7.5 Use of the BSN Gene to Promote Production of Homokaryons 52
4.1.7.6 Molecular Methods – RAPD, ISSR, and So On 52
4.1.7.7 Protoplast Methods to Develop Homokaryons 52
4.1.8 Hybridization: Intermating of Homokaryons/Heterokaryons 53
4.1.8.1 Intermating of Homokaryons 53
4.1.8.2 Hybridization using Resistance Markers 53
4.1.8.3 Hybridization using Auxotrophs as Markers 54
4.1.8.4 Somatic Hybridization/Protoplast Fusion 56
4.1.8.5 Di‐Mon Mating 57
4.1.8.6 Identification of Hybrids using Isoenzyme/Molecular Markers 58
4.1.9 Genetic Manipulation: Transformation 58
Contents vii
4.1.10 Selection 59
4.1.10.1 Direct Selection 59
4.1.10.2 Selection by Rejection 59
4.1.10.3 Marker‐Assisted Selection (MAS) 59
4.2 Oyster Mushroom (Pleurotus Species) 60
4.2.1 Introduction 60
4.2.2 Reproductive Biology 61
4.2.3 Germplasm 62
4.2.4 Genetic Variability 62
4.2.5 Genetic Parameters: Heterosis, Heritability, Combing Ability 64
4.2.6 Hybridization 65
4.2.6.1 Conventional Breeding 65
4.2.6.1.1 Intra-Strain Hybridization 65
4.2.6.1.2 Inter-Strain/Intra-Specific Hybridization 65
4.2.6.1.3 Interspecific Hybridization 66
4.2.6.3 Protoplast Fusion 67
4.2.6.4 Di‐Mon Mating 68
4.2.6.5 Non‐Conventional Breeding 68
4.2.6.5.1 Genetic Transformation 69
4.2.7 Desired Traits 69
4.2.7.1 Yield 69
4.2.7.2 Sporelessness 70
4.2.7.3 Wide Temperature Range 71
4.2.7.4 Chemical Tolerance 72
4.2.7.5 Bioactive Molecules 72
4.2.7.6 Other Traits 72
4.2.7.3.7 Environmental Bioremediation 72
4.3 Conclusion 72
References 73
5 Spawn Production 89
Kasper Moreaux
5.1 Our Spawn Industry Today 89
5.2 Basics 90
5.2.1 Terminology 90
5.2.2 The Mushroom Production Pyramid 91
5.3 Spawn Production Techniques 92
5.3.1 Grain/Sawdust Spawn Production in Small Bags 92
5.3.2 Grain Spawn in Large Bags 94
5.3.2.1 Individual Bags 95
5.3.2.2 Bulk 97
5.3.3 Liquid Spawn 99
5.3.4 Liquefied Spawn 101
5.3.5 Grain Spawn in Plastic Bottles or Glass Jars 101
5.4 Strain Selection 101
5.5 Strain Preservation and Degeneration 102
5.5.1 Deep Freezing 103
5.5.2 Cooling 104
5.5.3 Subculturing 105
viii Contents
5.5.4 Strain Refreshment 105
5.6 Production of Mother Cultures and Mother Spawn 107
5.6.1 Making Agar 107
5.6.2 Subculturing 107
5.6.3 Making Mother Spawn 109
5.6.4 Product Flow and Hygiene Rules in the Mother Spawn
Department 112
5.7 Hygiene 114
5.8 Sterilization, Disinfection, and Filtration 116
5.8.1 Heat Treatment 116
5.8.2 Chemical Treatment 120
5.8.3 Mechanical Treatment – Filtration 120
5.8.4 UV Treatment 121
5.8.5 Radiation Treatment 122
5.9 Substrate Composition 122
5.10 Incubation 123
5.10.1 Temperature 124
5.10.2 pH 125
5.10.3 Gas Concentration 125
5.10.4 Inoculation Method and Mixing 125
5.10.5 Incubation Rooms 126
5.11 Conservation and Transport 127
References 128
6 Compost as a Food Base for Agaricus bisporus 129
Jos Buth
6.1 The Place of Agaricus strains in Nature 129
6.1.1 Bacteria 129
6.2 Compost Process Phase I 130
6.3 Preparing Raw Materials 132
6.3.1 Prewetting 132
6.3.2 Mixing and Mixing Systems 134
6.3.3 Different Systems of Fermentation 136
6.3.4 Aerated Floors 136
6.4 Phase II 138
6.4.1 What Phase II Means and What Happens in Tunnels During
the Process 138
6.4.2 Systems 140
6.4.3 Tunnel Building for Phase II 142
6.5 Phase III 144
6.5.1 Spawning 144
6.5.2 Spawn Run 146
References 147
7 Casing Materials and Techniques in Agaricus bisporus Cultivation 149
Arturo Pardo‐Giménez, José Emilio Pardo González and Diego Cunha Zied
7.1 General Aspects of Casing and Fruiting 149
7.2 Casing Materials 153
7.2.1 Materials of Mineral Origin 153
Contents ix
7.2.1.1 Natural Materials 153
7.2.1.2 Processed Materials and Waste Products 154
7.2.2 Materials of Vegetal Origin 154
7.2.2.1 Natural Materials 154
7.2.2.2 Processed Materials and Waste Products 155
7.2.3 Synthetic Materials 156
7.2.4 Other Materials 157
7.3 Casing Related Techniques 158
7.3.1 Reuse of Casing 158
7.3.2 Ruffling 159
7.3.3 CACing Technique 160
7.3.4 Commercial Casing Inoculums 161
7.3.5 Other Techniques 162
7.3.5.1 Supplementary Casing Material Addition (“Patching”) 162
7.3.5.2 Compacting 162
7.3.5.3 Double Cropping: Casing Substitution 162
7.3.5.4 Double Cropping: Re‐Supplementing and Re‐Casing 162
7.3.5.5 Plastic Film Coverage 163
7.3.5.6 Sandwich Technique 163
7.3.5.7 Ditch Technique 163
References 163
8 The Bag or Block System of Agaricus Mushroom Growing 175
Raymond Samp
8.1 Overview of the System 175
8.2 Bags and Blocks in Use 176
8.3 Practical Use of the System – Phase I and Phase II 178
8.4 Practical Use of the System – Spawning and Phase III 178
8.5 Practical Use of the System – Casing through
Cropping 186
References 195
9 The Mushroom Industry in the Netherlands 197
Jos Buth
References 209
10 New Technology in Agaricus bisporus Cultivation 211
Arcadio Gómez
10.1 Introduction 211
10.2 Stages and Operations of the Production System 211
10.2.1 Compost Phase I, II, and III 211
10.2.2 Supplementation 213
10.2.3 Trays 213
10.2.4 Casing 214
10.2.5 Growing Rooms and Cultivation Cycle Management 216
10.2.6 Production and Harvest 217
10.2.7 Compost Discard 219
10.3 Conclusion 220
References 220
x Contents
11 Insect, Mite, and Nematode Pests of Commercial Mushroom Production 221
Danny Lee Rinker
11.1 Fly Pests 221
11.1.1 Dark‐Winged Fungus Gnat 221
11.1.1.1 Damage 222
11.1.1.2 Identification 222
11.1.1.3 Life History 223
11.1.1.4 Management Strategies 223
11.1.1.4.1 Monitoring 223
11.1.1.4.2 Cultural Practices 224
11.1.1.4.3 Biological/biorational Control 225
11.1.1.4.4 Chemical Control 225
11.1.2 Gall Midges, Cecids 226
11.1.2.1 Damage 226
11.1.2.2 Identification 226
11.1.2.3 Life History 227
11.1.2.4 Management Strategies 227
11.1.2.4.1 Cultural Management 227
11.1.2.4.2 Biocontrol/Biorational Control 227
11.1.3 Phorid Flies 227
11.1.3.1 Damage 228
11.1.3.2 Identification 228
11.1.3.3 Life History 228
11.1.3.4 Management Strategies 229
11.1.3.4.1 Monitoring 229
11.1.3.4.2 Biological/Biorational Control 229
11.1.3.4.3 Cultural Practices 229
11.1.3.4.4 Chemical Control 229
11.2 Mite Pests 230
11.2.1 Pyemotid mites 230
11.2.1.1 Damage 230
11.2.1.2 Identification 230
11.2.1.3 Life History 230
11.2.1.4 Management Strategies 231
11.2.1.5 Chemical Management 231
11.2.2 Gamasid Mites 231
11.2.3 Other Mites Associated with Mushroom Cultivation 231
11.3 Nematode Pests 231
11.3.1 Saprophytic Nematodes 232
11.3.1.1 Symptoms and Signs 232
11.3.1.2 Causal Agents 232
11.3.1.3 Disease Cycle and Epidemiology 232
11.3.1.4 Management Strategies 233
11.3.2 Parasitic Nematodes 233
11.3.2.1 Causal Agents 233
11.3.2.2 Symptoms and Signs 233
11.3.2.3 Disease Cycle and Epidemiology 233
11.3.2.4 Management Strategies 234
11.3.3 Beneficial Nematodes 234
Contents xi
11.3.3.1 Endoparasitic Nematodes 234
11.3.3.2 Entomopathogenic Nematodes 234
References 235
12 Mushroom Diseases and Control 239
Francisco J. Gea and María J. Navarro
12.1 Introduction 239
12.2 Fungal Diseases 239
12.2.1 Dry Bubble 239
12.2.1.1 Control 241
12.2.2 Wet Bubble 242
12.2.2.1 Control 243
12.2.3 Cobweb 244
12.2.3.1 Control 245
12.2.4 Trichoderma Diseases 245
12.2.4.1 Control 248
12.2.5 False Truffle 249
12.2.5.1 Control 250
12.2.6 White Plaster Mold 251
12.2.6.1 Control 251
12.2.7 Brown Plaster Mold 252
12.2.7.1 Control 252
12.3 Bacterial Diseases 253
12.3.1 Bacterial Blotch or Brown Blotch 253
12.3.1.1 Control 254
12.3.2 Internal Stipe Necrosis 255
12.3.2.1 Control 255
12.4 Viral Diseases 256
12.4.1 La France Disease or Die‐Back 256
12.4.1.1 Control 257
Further Reading 257
13 Harvesting and Processing of Mushrooms 261
Juan Valverde
13.1 Introduction 261
13.2 Manual Harvesting 262
13.3 Mechanical Harvesting 265
13.4 Automatic Harvesting Systems 265
13.5 Washing Mushrooms 267
13.6 Canning Mushrooms 268
13.7 Conclusions 268
References 269
14 Mushroom Farm Design and Technology of Cultivation 271
Behari Lal Dhar
14.1 Selection of Site and Pre-Requisites 272
14.2 Components of a Mushroom Farm 273
14.2.1 General Layout/Location of Various Units 274
14.2.2 Composting Unit 275