Ecosystems and Human Health: Toxicology and Environmental Hazards, Third Edition

429 Pages·2013·29.58 MB·English

by  Richard B. Philp

ENVIRONMENTAL SCIENCE
Philp
Third Edition
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Ecosystems and
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o
Human Health
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y
s
Toxicology and Environmental Hazards t
e
m
s
Since the second edition of this text was published, many new environmental inci-

dents have occurred, including another nuclear disaster, a mine disaster in the United a
States, and the Gulf of Mexico oil spill. Updated throughout the text, Ecosystems and Hu- n
man Health: Toxicology and Environmental Hazards, Third Edition explores the broad d
Third Edition
range of environmental and human health aspects of chemical and biological hazards—
H
from natural toxins and disasters to man-made pollutants and environmental crises.
u
The book begins with the basic principles of pharmacology and toxicology, risk analysis, and m
air, water, and soil pollution. It then examines various toxicants and hazards, such as airborne
a
hazards, halogenated hydrocarbons, metals, and organic solvents. Chapters also discuss food
n
additives and contaminants, pesticides, hormone disrupters, radiation hazards, and natural Ecosystems and

environmental hazards such as venomous and toxic animals. The text reviews the Chernobyl H
nuclear crisis and the Walkerton drinking water tragedy, as well as other disasters, assessing
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some of their long-term effects,now that sufficient time has elapsed since their occurrence.
a
Human Health
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With updates in every chapter, this third edition contains significant expansion of infor- t
h
mation on the genetics of chemical carcinogenesis, global warming, food additives, in-
vasive species in the Great Lakes, nuclear accidents, and more. The book describes how
chemical toxins and biological hazards can impact the environment and the people who
Toxicology and
live in it. The author presents numerous examples of the relationship between ecosystem
Third
health and human health. He emphasizes the need to consider the environmental impact
of human activities and includes many real-world examples and new case studies. Edition Environmental Hazards
K16319
Richard B. Philp
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Third Edition
Ecosystems and
Human Health
Toxicology and
Environmental Hazards

Third Edition
Ecosystems and
Human Health
Toxicology and
Environmental Hazards
Richard B. Philp
Boca Raton London New York
CRC Press is an imprint of the
Taylor & Francis Group, an informa business
CRC Press
Taylor & Francis Group
6000 Broken Sound Parkway NW, Suite 300
Boca Raton, FL 33487-2742
© 2013 by Taylor & Francis Group, LLC
CRC Press is an imprint of Taylor & Francis Group, an Informa business
No claim to original U.S. Government works
Version Date: 20130125
International Standard Book Number-13: 978-1-4665-6724-5 (eBook - PDF)
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Contents
Author ...................................................................................................................xix
1. Principles of Pharmacology and Toxicology .............................................1
Introduction ......................................................................................................1
Pharmacokinetics .............................................................................................3
Absorption ...................................................................................................4
Distribution ..................................................................................................5
Biotransformation .......................................................................................7
Elimination ................................................................................................10
Pharmacodynamics .......................................................................................12
Ligand Binding and Receptors ...............................................................12
Biological Variation and Data Manipulation ........................................14
Dose Response ...........................................................................................15
Probit Analysis ..........................................................................................17
Cumulative Effects ....................................................................................19
Factors Influencing Responses to Xenobiotics ......................................21
Age ..........................................................................................................21
Body Composition ................................................................................22
Sex ...........................................................................................................22
Genetic Factors ......................................................................................22
Presence of Pathology ..........................................................................25
Xenobiotic Interactions ........................................................................25
Some Toxicological Considerations .............................................................27
Acute versus Chronic Toxicity ................................................................27
Acute Toxicity ............................................................................................27
Peripheral Neurotoxins .......................................................................28
Central Neurotoxins ............................................................................28
Inhibitors of Oxidative Phosphorylation ..........................................28
Uncoupling Agents ..............................................................................28
Inhibitors of Intermediary Metabolism ............................................29
Chronic Toxicity ...................................................................................29
Mutagenesis and Carcinogenesis ................................................................29
Introduction ...............................................................................................29
Genetics of Carcinogenesis ......................................................................31
Oncogene ...............................................................................................31
Proto-Oncogene ....................................................................................31
Tumor Suppressor Genes ....................................................................31
Growth Factor Receptors .....................................................................32
Hormone Receptors .............................................................................33
Drug Resistance Genes ........................................................................33
© 2008 Taylor & Francis Group, LLC v
vi Contents
Antisense Genes ...................................................................................34
Genetic Predisposition to Cancer ......................................................34
Epigenetic Mechanisms of Carcinogenesis ...........................................34
Viruses and Cancer ...................................................................................35
Models of Carcinogenesis ........................................................................37
Model 1 ..................................................................................................37
Model 2 ..................................................................................................38
Model 3 ..................................................................................................38
Model 4 ..................................................................................................38
Model 5 ..................................................................................................39
Model 6 ..................................................................................................39
Stages of Chemically Induced Carcinogenesis .....................................39
Initiation ................................................................................................39
Promotion ..............................................................................................39
Progression ............................................................................................40
DNA and Cell Repair ....................................................................................41
Response of Tissues to Chemical Insult ................................................41
DNA Repair ...............................................................................................41
Cell Repair and Regeneration in Toxic Reactions ................................42
Fetal Toxicology .............................................................................................42
Teratogenesis ..............................................................................................42
Transplacental Carcinogenesis ................................................................44
Population and Pollution ..............................................................................45
Review Questions ..........................................................................................46
Answers ...........................................................................................................50
Further Reading .............................................................................................51
2. Risk Analysis and Public Perceptions of Risk .......................................53
Introduction ....................................................................................................53
Assessment of Toxicity versus Risk.............................................................54
Predicting Risk: Workplace versus the Environment...............................55
Acute Exposures ........................................................................................55
Chronic Exposures ....................................................................................55
Very-Low-Level, Long-Term Exposures .................................................55
Carcinogenesis ...........................................................................................56
Risk Assessment and Carcinogenesis ...............................................56
Sources of Error in Predicting Cancer Risks .........................................59
Portal-of-Entry Effects .........................................................................59
Age Effects .............................................................................................61
Exposure to Co-Carcinogens and Promoters...................................61
Species Differences ..............................................................................61
Extrapolation of Animal Data to Humans .......................................63
Hormesis ................................................................................................63
Natural versus Anthropogenic Carcinogens ...................................64
Reliability of Tests of Carcinogenesis ................................................65
© 2008 Taylor & Francis Group, LLC
Contents vii
Environmental Monitoring ..........................................................................65
Setting Safe Limits in the Workplace ..........................................................66
Some Important Definitions .........................................................................67
Environmental Risks: Problems with Assessment
and Public Perceptions ..................................................................................68
Psychological Impact of Real and Potential
Environmental Risks.........................................................................69
Voluntary Risk Acceptance versus Imposed Risks ..............................70
Costs of Risk Avoidance ...........................................................................71
Some Examples of Major Industrial Accidents and Environmental
Chemical Exposures with Human Health Implications ..........................72
Nuclear Accidents .....................................................................................72
Formaldehyde ............................................................................................73
Dioxin (TCDD) ...........................................................................................74
Some Legal Aspects of Risk .........................................................................75
De Minimis Concept.................................................................................75
Delaney Amendment ...............................................................................76
Statistical Problems with Risk Assessment................................................77
Risk Management ..........................................................................................78
Precautionary Principle ................................................................................79
Case Study 1 ...................................................................................................80
Case Study 2 ...................................................................................................80
Review Questions ..........................................................................................81
Answers ...........................................................................................................84
Further Reading .............................................................................................85
3. Water and Soil Pollution .............................................................................87
Introduction ....................................................................................................87
Factors Affecting Toxicants in Water ..........................................................88
Exchange of Toxicants in an Ecosystem.................................................88
Factors (Modifiers) Affecting Uptake of Toxicants
from the Environment ..............................................................................89
Abiotic Modifiers ..................................................................................89
Biotic Modifiers .....................................................................................91
Invasive Species .........................................................................................92
Some Important Definitions .........................................................................94
Toxicity Testing in Marine and Aquatic Species .......................................94
Water Quality .................................................................................................95
Sources of Pollution ..................................................................................96
Some Major Water Pollutants ..................................................................98
Chemical Classification of Pesticides .....................................................99
Health Hazards of Pesticides and Related Chemicals..............................99
Chlorinated Hydrocarbons ......................................................................99
Chlorophenoxy Acid Herbicides...........................................................100
Organophosphates (Organophosphorus Insecticides) ......................100
© 2008 Taylor & Francis Group, LLC
viii Contents
Carbamates ..............................................................................................101
Bhopal Disaster ...................................................................................101
Acidity and Toxic Metals ............................................................................102
Chemical Hazards from Waste Disposal .................................................104
Love Canal Story .....................................................................................105
Problems with Love Canal Studies ..................................................107
Toxicants in the Great Lakes: Implications for
Human Health and Wildlife ......................................................................108
Evidence of Adverse Effects on Human Health .................................110
Evidence for Adverse Effects in Wildlife .............................................111
Global Warming and Water Levels in the Great Lakes ..........................111
Marine Environment ...................................................................................112
Sources of Marine Pollution ..................................................................113
Nonpoint Sources of Pollution .........................................................113
Point Sources of Pollution .................................................................116
Biological Hazards in Drinking Water .....................................................118
Walkerton Water Crisis ...............................................................................119
Review Questions ........................................................................................122
Answers .........................................................................................................124
Further Reading ...........................................................................................125
4. Airborne Hazards .......................................................................................129
Introduction ..................................................................................................129
Types of Air Pollution .................................................................................129
Gaseous Pollutants ..................................................................................129
Particulates ...............................................................................................130
Smog ..........................................................................................................130
Sources of Air Pollution ..............................................................................130
Atmospheric Distribution of Pollutants ...................................................131
Movement in the Troposphere ..............................................................132
Movement in the Stratosphere ..............................................................132
Water and Soil Transport of Air Pollutants .........................................132
Types of Pollutants .......................................................................................133
Gaseous Pollutants ..................................................................................133
Particulate Pollutants ..............................................................................134
Health Effects of Air Pollution ...................................................................134
Acute Effects ............................................................................................134
Chronic Effects ........................................................................................135
Adverse Effects of Aerial Spraying ...........................................................136
Light-Brown Apple Moth .......................................................................137
Painted Apple Moth and the Asian Gypsy Moth ...............................138
Other Incidents ........................................................................................139
Spraying with Conventional Insecticides ............................................140
© 2008 Taylor & Francis Group, LLC