Ecology of Highlands

253 Pages·1980·8.906 MB·English

by  M. S. Mani, L. E. Giddings (auth.)

ECOLOGY OF HIGHLANDS
MONOGRAPHIAE
BIOLOGICAE
Editor
1.ILLIES
Schlitz
VOLUME 40
Dr W Junk bv Publishers The Hague-Boston-London 1980
ECOLOGY OF HIGHLANDS
M. S. MANI
&
L. E. GIDDINGS
Dr W Junk bv Publishers The Hague-Baston-London 1980
Distributors:
for the United States and Canada
Kluwer Boston, Inc.
190 Old Derby Street
Hingham, MA 02043
USA
for all other countries
Kluwer Academic Publishers Group
Distribution Center
P.O. Box 322
3300 AH Dordrecht
The Netherlands
Library of Congress Cataloging in Publication Data
Mani,M S
Ecology of highlands
(Monographiae biologicae; v. 40)
Bibliography
Includes index.
1. Mountain ecology. I. Giddings, Lorrain E., joint author. II. Title. III. Series.
QP1.P37 vol. 40 [QH541.5M65] 574s [574.5'264] 80-14798
ISBN-13: 978-94-009-9176-7 e-ISBN-13: 978-94-009-9174-3
DOl: 10.1007/978-94-009-9174-3
Copyright © 1980 Dr. W. Junk bv Publishers, The Hague.
Softcover reprint olthe hardcover 1st edition 1980
All rights reserved. No part of this publication may be reproduced, stored in a retrieval system,
or transmitted in any form or by any means, mechanical, photocopying, recording, or otherwise,
without the prior written permission of the publishers Dr. W. Junk bv Publishers, P.O. Box
13713, 2501 ES The Hague, The Netherlands.
Table of Contents
Preface
Chapter 1. Introduction. M. S. Mani 1
What is highland? 1
The high altitude environment 2
Principal highlands 6
References 9
Chapter II. The physical environment of the highlands.
L. E. Giddings 11
Atmospheric pressure 11
Air temperature 17
Standard atmospheres 17
Composition of the atmosphere 18
Precipitable water 19
Regimes of temperature and pressure 24
Other properties 24
Upper air 24
References 34
Chapter III. The radiation environment. L. E. Giddings 35
Solar energy outside the atmosphere 35
Effect of the atmosphere 36
Sunlight that reaches highlands directly 38
Atmospheric attenuation of sunlight on a clear day 38
The effect of haze 44
Total direct radiation 44
Indirect radiation 46
Total radiation 47
Limitations of calculations 47
Conclusion 48
References 48
Chapter IV. Correcting boiling points. L. E. Giddings 49
Clausius-Clapeyron equation 49
Germann charts 51
Othmers modification 55
Myers' charts 58
Diihrings rule 59
Other methods 61
Automatic methods 61
References 62
v
Chapter V. Compensating for chemical effects of the lower at-
mospheric pressure. L. E. Giddings 63
Simple model 63
Practical correction of boiling time 64
Arrhenius activation energy 65
Heat of vaporization 65
Discussion of the correction factor 66
Amenable reactions 66
Solutions under reflux 68
Open boiling solutions 68
The egg and other special cases 69
Other ways to compensate for altitude 69
References 70
Chapter VI. Barometry. L. E. Giddings 71
The problem 71
Standards of the WMO 72
Mercury barometers 75
Aneroid barometers 75
Constructing a mercury barometer 76
The contrabarometer 76
Electronic devices 76
The Hypsometer 77
A 'chemical' method 77
References 79
Chapter VII. Psychrometry. L. E. Giddings 81
Alternatives to the psychrometer 81
References 91
Chapter VIII. For the engineer. L. E. Giddings 93
Azeotropes 93
Combustion 93
More complex flames 95
Engines 95
Gravity 97
References 99
Chapter IX. The highlands in the space age. L. E. Giddings 101
Remote sensing of the environment 101
Instruments for remote sensing 101
Platforms for remote sensing 104
Multispectral photography and radiometry 107
Integrating several spectral bands 107
Landsat false colour infrared image 110
Photographs from space 111
The landsat satellites 112
VI
Polar orbiting meteorological satellites 114
Geosynchronous meteorological satellites 117
Automatic picture transmission (APT) 117
Obtaining imagery from the EROS Data Center 119
Independent ways of identifying Gemini, Apollo,
Apollo-Soyuz, Skyl ab and Landsat Imagery 121
Some comments 122
References 123
Chapter X. The vegetation of highlands. M. S. Mani 127
Introduction 127
Characters of highland plants 129
Some typical highland plants 132
i. Dicotyledons 133
ii. Monocotyledons 135
African mountains 135
The Andes 137
References 137
Chapter XI. The animal life of highlands. M. S. Mani 141
Introduction 141
Peculiarities of hypsobiont animals 141
i. Temperature oriented animals 141
ii. Pressure oriented animals 142
iii. Some minor peculiarities 143
Some typical hypsobiont animals 145
\. Minor invertebrates 145
Il. Arthropoda 146
A. Crustacea 146
B. Arachnida 146
C. The myriapod complex 148
D. Insects 148
Ill. Vertebrates 153
Lowland animals at high altitude 154
i. Aeolian derelicts 155
ii. Summit-seeking species 156
iii. Ecological significance 157
References 158
Chapter XII. Man in highland ecosystem: physiology of native high-
landers. M. S. Mani & A. Pardo 161
Introduction 161
The natives of highlands 162
General physique 166
Respiratory and cardiovascular systems 167
Other peculiarities 170
Conclusions 173
References 175
vii
Chapter XIII. Man in highland ecosystem: effects of exposure to high
altitude. M. S. Mani 177
Introduction 177
Hypoxia 178
i. Hypoxia in lower animals 179
ii. Hypoxia in man 180
Respiratory changes 181
Cardiovascular changes 184
Changes in the blood 186
Neurohormonal changes 190
Metabolism, growth and reproduction 192
Action of ionizing radiations 195
Psychic effects 1 96
References 20()
Chapter XlV. Man in highland ecosystem: human acclimatization to
highland conditions. M. S. Mani 211
Introduction 2 II
Basic features 211
Factors influencing acclimatization 214
1. Individual factors 2 15
ii. Previous experience of high altitude 2 1 7
iii. The rate of ascent of high altitude 2 17
IV. Altitude limits 218
v. Duration of stay at high altitude 219
VI. Activity at high altitude during acclimatization 219
vii. Mountain constant 220
Epilogue 221
References 222
Chapter XV. For the future. L. E. Giddings & M. S. Mani 225
The physical environment 225
The electromagnetic radiation environment 228
Corpuscular radiation 229
Chemical effects 229
For the engineer 230
Biology 230
Man in highlands 231
References 234
Index 237
Vlll
List of figures and plates
Figures
1-1 Climatic and biotic Zones on Mountains comprising the High Al-
titude Ecosystem
2-1 Variation of Pressure with Altitude
2-2 Temperature and Precipitation in High Areas
2-3 Physical Properties of the Atmosphere
3-1 Solar Irradiation
3-2 Angular Dependence of Solar Irradiation
4-2 Temperature Reciprocal Scale
4-3 German Charts for Calculating Boiling Points
4-5 Myers' Chart
4-6 Myers' Chart for 617 Torr (4-12)
4-7 Application of Diihring's Rule in Example 4-6
6-1 A Pressure-Subtracting Hypsometer
8-1 Altitude Correction for Reciprocating Compressors
8-2 Performance Correction Factor for Altitude
9-1 Some Remote Sensing Systems (9-6)
11-1 Differences in myogbolin in sheep and Himalayan ibex
11-2 Relation of high altitude, sea level and abyssal ecosystems
13-1 Changes in arterial blood on ascent to 3600 m
13-2 Physiological indices before and after ascent on Himalaya
13-3 Blood protein changes on ascent to 4200 m on Pamirs
13-4 Erythropoiesis in Vertebrates and in Man at different altitudes
13-5 Psychic reactions at High Altitude and factors
14-1 High Altitude Acclimatization - fundamental processes
14-2 Factors which influence high altitude acclimatization
14-3 Altitudinal limits of acclimatization
Plates
1-1 Himalaya & Altiplano of Bolivia
9-1 Gemini Photograph of the Bolivian Highlands
9-2 Apollo Photograph of the Tibetan Highlands
9-3 The Central Plateau of Mexico
9-4 Landsat Image in Green Light
9-5 Same in red light
9-6 Same in near infrared (0.7-0.8fJ.)
9-7 Same in near infrared (0.8-1.1 j.t)
9-8 Colour Composite Image from 9-4, 9-5, and 9-6
ix
9-9 Landsat False Colour Infrared Image
9-10 Composite Visible Image from NOAA-4
9-11 Composite Thermal Infrared Image from NOAA-4
9-12 Whole-Hemisphere Image from SMSjGOES-1
10-1 Himalaya
1. High altitude region of Himalaya
2. Primula denticulata
12-1 Native Highlanders
1. Tibetan Nun
2. Himalayan farmer
12-2 Children of Highlands
1. Tibetan Children
2. Bolivian Children
12-3 Altiplano outside La Paz
2. Mountain farming
x