Ecology Of Forest Insects

615 Pages·1986·10.1 MB·English

by  Andrzej Szujecki (auth.)

ECOLOGY OF FOREST INSECTS
SERIES ENTOMOLOGICA
EDITOR
K. A. SPENCER
VOLUME 26
ECOLOGY OF FOREST
INSECTS
ANDRZEJ SZUJECKI
Department of Forest Protection and Ecology
Agricultural University of Warsaw, Poland
Translated from the Polish by
ALBERT RADZIWTLL
1987 DR W. JUNK PUBLISHERS
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First English Edition 1987
Translation from the Polish original
Ekologia owadow ldnych
published by Panstwowe Wydawnictwo Naukowe, Warszawa 1980
Library of Congress Cataloging in Publication Data
Szujecki, Andrzej.
Ecology of forest insects.
(Series entomologica ; v. 26)
Bibliography: p.
I. Forest insects - Ecology. I. Title. II. Series.
QL463.S96 1984 595.7'052642 83-17602
ISBN-13: 978-94-010-8630-1 e-ISBN-13: 978-94-009-4804-4
DOl: 10.1007/978-94-009-4804-4
Cover design: Zygmunt Ziemka
Copyright © by PWN - Polish Scientific Publishers, Warszawa 1987
Softcover reprint of the hardcover I st edition 1987
All rights reserved. No part of this publication may be reproduced, stored in a re
trieval system or transmitted in any form or by any means, electronic, mechanic,
photocopying, recording or otherwise without prior permission of Polish
Scientific Publishers.
To my Professor, doctor honoris causa of the
Agricultural University of Warsaw, MARIAN NUNBERG,
on the 60th anniversary of His scientific work
The Author
Introduction
Few branches of the biological sciences have developed to such an extent
as has ecology in the recent decades. The successful development of this
science is directly related to need to create a sound scientific basis by
which we can control our diminishing natural resources and integrate
this with the control of biological systems of the component species.
Studies on the bioenergetics of ecosystems, as well as on the home
ostatic mechanisms functioning at the populations and biocenoses levels
are of great importance in this respect. The results of these studies are
very significant in forestry management which deals with multiannual
tree communities - forest stands. It is particularly important in this
respect for economic planning, in view of the necessity for the possible
prolonged maintenance of forest biocenoses as stable systems. Neither
in the present nor in the immediate future can be protection of forest
ecosystems consisting of natural plant and animal communities be
achieved by the cultivation of resistant forms or the intensification of
chemical intervention.
Historical experience indicates that, besides the main factors deter
mining the turnover of matter and energy flow in forest ecosystems, the
mechanisms regulating the size of populations of various insect species
are the most decisive element of stability of exploited forest associations
securing also a favourable course of timber production, lasting forest
exploitation and permanence of the forest as a component of the natural
landscape. This is due to the fact that communities of forest insects,
formed in the course of many centuries within the process of development
of forest formations, are particularly susceptible to external stimuli and
readily react to changing environmental conditions in the form of changes
in their numbers. Under definite conditions many phytophagous spe
cies, in dissipating their enormous reproductive potential, may rapidly
reach such enormous numbers that their nutrient requirements exceed
VII
INTRODUCTION
the efficiency of the given phytocenosis. This leads to a change in the
rate and direction of the circulation of matter and energy and even to
a collapse of the entire ecosystem.
These circumstances seem to justify the need for a detailed under
standing of the ecology of forest insects which should supply certain
data for correct forest management, particularly in the field of forest
protection and shaping of the environment.
The ecology of forest insects as a scientific branch connected with
forest ecology and entomology includes:
1) studies on the dependences of individual insect species on various
factors of the forest environn:c nt, which frequently change under the in
fluence of management practices, as well as the elucidation of the causes
and regularities of occurrence of definite insects in the forest due to
these dependences;
2) studies of the influence of the forest environment on the changes in
the abundance of individual species and their contribution to the turnover
of matter and energy flow in forest ecosystems;
3) studies on the conditions and regularities of the structure of multi
specific communities of organisms, particularly insects in various forest
types under different geographical conditions, and upon the application
of various forest management methods as well as the recognition of the
homeostatic mechanism of these communities.
The influence on communities and functions of forest insects of
anthropogenic activities not connected with forest management, as for
example industrial pollution or agricultural utilization of forest soils, etc.,
is an important aspect of the study of the ecology of forest insects.
The aim of these studies is to create an (cological basis for the plan
ning and realization of protective methods as well as biological recultiva
tion of areas requiring afforestation. A study of ecology of forest insects
should establish the rules governing insect numbers and by forming the
forest environment should raise the resistance of forest stands. Such
a study should also indicate the natural and, in particular, the ento
mocenotic consequences of forest management as well as the influence
of other anthropogenic factors.
VIII
Contents
Introduction . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . VII
1. SPECIES AND POPULATIONS OF INSECTS AND T:-IEIR
BASIC ASSOCIATIONS WITH THE FOREST ENVIRON-
MENT ........................ .
2. INFLUENCE OF ABIOTIC ENVIRONMENTAL FACTORS
ON FOREST INSECTS . . . . . . . . . . . . . 13
Influence of solar radiation and atmospheric factors. 13
2.1. Light 13
2.1.1. Influence of light on behaviour . . . . 13
2.1.2. Influence of light on reproduction and deveJop-
ment ............ . 17
2.2. Temperature . . . . . . . . . . . . . 21
2.2.1. Regulation of body temperature . 22
2.2.2. Thermal tolerance . . . . . . . 26
2.2.3. Influence of temperature on activity and orienta-
tion. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 30
2.2.4. Influence of infra-red radiation on behaviour and
orientation. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 32
2.2.5. Dependence of growth and development on tem-
perature. . . . . . . . 33
2.3. Humidity and precipitation . . . 39
2.3.1. Water in the insect body. 39
2.3.2. Tolerance and adaptatio!l . 41
2.3.3. Activity, orientation and preference phenomena. 47
2.3.4. Influence of humidity on reproduction and devel-
opment . . . 49
2.3.5. Precipitation. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 51
IX
CONTENTS
2.4. Air, atmospheric pressure and wind 52
2.5. Integrated action of climatic factors 54
2.5.1. Climograms, bioclimograms and hygrothermic
coefficient . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 55
2.5.2. Influence of the forest mesoclimate on the distribu-
tion of insects. . . . 59
Influence of soil factors on insects. 63
2.6. General characteristics of soil insects . 63
2.7. Insects and physical soil properties. . 64
2.7.1. Structure and mechanical composition 65
2.7.2. Humidity ..... 68
2.7.3. Thermal conditions. 69
2.7.4. Light .... . 73
2.7.5. Soil air ..... . 73
2.7.6. Humus content .. 74
2.8. Influence of chemical properties of the soil 76
3. THE ROLE OF NUTRIENT FACTORS IN THE LIFE OF
FOREST INSECTS . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 78
3.1. General characteristics of trophic relationships. 78
3.2. Nutrient relationships of phytophages 82
3.2.1. Nutrient specialization . . 82
3.2.2. Selection of the host plant . . 85
3.2.3. Food value . . . . . . . . . 91
3.2.4. Influence of food on reproduction and develop-
ment . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 95
3.2.5. Influence of the physiological condition of the host
plant . . . . . . . . . . . . . 97
3.3. Feeding relationships among zoophages . 100
3.3.1. Predators 102
3.3.2. Parasites 104
3.4. Characteristics of saprophages 110
4. INTRASPECIFIC RELATIONSHIPS OF FOREST INSECTS 112
Integration of populations . . . . . . . . 112
4.1. Sexual life and protection of progeny. 113
4.2. Collective life of insects. . . . . . . 118
x
CONTENTS
Structure and function of the population. 120
4.3. Abundance and density 120
4.4. Spatial distribution 122
4.5. Age distribution . . . 124
4.6. Sex structure. . . . . 127
4.7. Reproductive potential. 129
4.8. Mortality. . . . 131
Population dynamics. 141
4.9. Level of abundance and its variation. 141
4.10. Coefficient r and curves of population increase 144
4.10.1. Oscillations . . . . . . . . . . . . . 149
4.10.2. Fluctuations and outbreaks (gradations) 152
4.11. Phasic character and spread of outbreaks (gradations). 155
5. CAUSES AND COURSE OF CHANGES IN THE ABUN-
DANCE OF INSECT POPULATIONS .......... 162
Development of opinions on the causes of changes in abundance. 163
5.1. Concepts not accepting the notion of automatic regulation
of the abundance of populations. . . . , . . . . . . 163
5.1.1. Concept of the decisive importance of one factor. . 163
5.1.2. Concept of the complex influence of the components
of the ecosystem. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 172
5.2. Concepts based on the automatic regulation of popula-
tion size . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 180
5.2.1. Concepts of self-regulation with respect to the
decisive role of parasites and of overcrowding. . 180
5.2.2. Concept of the automatic regulation of abundance. 181
5.2.3. Facts justifying the concept of the automatic regu
lation of abundance . . . . . . . . . . . . . 185
5.2.4. Milne's integrating concept .......... 191
5.2.5. Concept based on the influence of genetic mecha-
nisms . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .. 193
5.2.6. Concept of modifying and regulating factors 196
Factors determining the course of changes in abundance 202
5.3. Undirectionally acting (random) factors. . . . .. 202
5.3.1. Direct influence of meteorological conditions. 203
XI