Ecology of Estuaries: Volume 2: Biological Aspects

265 Pages·1990·16.723 MB·\265

by  Michael J. Kennish (Author)

Ecology of Estuaries
Volume I
Physical and Chemical Aspects
Author
Michael J. Kennish, Ph.D.
Senior Environmental Scientist
Environmental Controls Department
GPU Nuclear Corporation
Forked River, New Jersey
Boca Raton London New York
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Library of Congress Cataloging-in-Publication Data
Kennish, Michael J.
Ecology of estuaries
Includes bibliographies and index
Contents: v. 1. Physical and chemical aspects
1. Estuarine ecology--Collected works. I. Title.
QH541.5.E8K46 1986 574.5’26365 85-20937
ISBN 0-8493-5892-2
A Library of Congress record exists under LC control number: 85020937
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ISBN 13: 978-1-315-89250-4 (hbk)
ISBN 13: 978-1-351-07160-4 (ebk)
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PREFACE
The rapid development of esiuarine ecology as a field of scientific inquiry reflects a
growing awareness of the immense societal importance of these coastal ecosystems. The
many, varied, and increasingly complex problems arising from anthropogenic use of estuaries
have focused attention on the pressing need to protect estuarine resources and to assess each
system's physical, chemical, and biological conditions. Unequivocally, the study of estuaries
involves both ecological and societal issues. As a result of the heightened public concern
related to the water quality of coastal regions in the United States, for example, numerous
detailed and quantitative research programs were undertaken in the 1960s, 1970s, and 1980s,
which provided a basic understanding of the processes operating in many estuaries. The
information derived from these programs has also aided decision-making bodies at all levels
— that plan for the utilization of natural resources — to make sound decisions dealing with
these dynamic waters.
The number of publications on estuaries increased dramatically during the last two decades,
concomitant with expanded coverage of the many interdisciplinary topics relevant to estuarine
ecology. While the volume of literature on estuaries amassed, scientists deemed it necessary
to synthesize the field periodically. Consequently, several books were produced which
examined various aspects of the discipline, but were rather limited in their treatment of
certain areas, such as physical and chemical processes.
The objective of this book is to review the physical and chemical characteristics of
estuaries. The volume has been designed principally as a reference for scientists, but ad-
ministrators, managers, decision makers, and other professionals involved in some way with
estuarine research can find value in the text. In addition, I have attempted to integrate the
diverse components of estuarine ecology, to assemble citations of the major articles and
books investigating physical and chemical processes in estuaries, and to present the subject
matter in an organized framework which should assist undergraduate and graduate students
pursuing courses in this field.
I am indebted to many scientists, colleagues, family members, and friends who have
provided encouragement and inspiration during the production of this book. In GPU Nuclear
Corporation, I am especially grateful to D. J. Cafaro, P. A. Chizmadia, D. W. Moore, and
J. J. Vouglitois for many informal discussions on estuaries. An expression of gratitude is
extended to R. E. Loveland and R. A. Lutz of Rutgers University for innumerable exchanges
of ideas on this subject. I also thank the authors and publishers who generously granted
permission to reproduce material in this publication. I specifically acknowledge Rutgers
University, where I obtained my basic knowledge of estuaries. The Editorial Department of
CRC Press is thanked for its efficiency and guidance during the publication process. Finally,
I am most appreciative of my wife, Jo-Ann, and children, Shawn and Michael, for thier
unending support and love during the preparation of the manuscript.
THE AUTHOR
Michael J, Kennish, Ph.D., is a Senior Environmental Scientist at GPU Nuclear Cor-
poration, Oyster Creek Nuclear Generating Station, Forked River, New Jersey.
Dr. Kennish received his B.A., M.S., and Ph.D. degrees in Geology from Rutgers
University in 1972, 1974, and 1977, respectively.
Dr. Kennish is a member of the American Fisheries Society, the American Society of
Limnology and Oceanography, the Estuarine and Brackish-Water Sciences Association, the
Estuarine Research Federation, the New England Estuarine Research Society, the Atlantic
Estuarine Research Society, the Southeastern Estuarine Research Society, the Gulf Estuarine
Research Society, the Pacific Estuarine Research Society, the National Shellfisheries As-
sociation, and the New Jersey Academy of Science. Among his awards and honors, he is
a member of Sigma Xi and is profiled in Who's Who in Frontiers of Science and Technology.
The author of numerous journal articles, chapters in books, and the editor of one book,
Dr. Kennish has been involved with investigations of anthropogenic impacts on aquatic
ecosystems for more than a decade, including studies of dredging and dredge-spoil disposal,
organic loading, thermal discharges, and entrainment and impingement of organisms by
electric generating stations. His current research interests span areas of estuarine ecology,
marine ecology, and marine geology.
TABLE OF CONTENTS
Introduction 1
I. Significance of Estuaries 1
II. Literature Review 1
III. Plan of This Volume 3
References 7
Chapter 1
Classification of Estuaries 9
I. Introduction 9
II. Definition of an Estuary 9
III. Classification of Estuaries 10
A. Classification Based on Geomorphology and Physiography 10
1. Classification Based on Geomorphology 10
a. Drowned River Valleys 10
b. Lagoon-Type, Bar-Built Estuaries 10
c. Fjord-Type Estuaries 14
d. Technically Produced Estuaries 16
2. Classification Based on Physiography 16
B. Classification Based on Hydrography 18
1. Classification Based on Circulation 20
a. Type A, Highly Stratified, Salt Wedge Estuary 20
b. Type B, Partially Mixed, Moderately Stratified
Estuary 22
c. Type C, Vertically Homogeneous Estuary 23
d. Type D, Sectionally Homogeneous Estuary 23
2. Classification Using a Stratification-Circulation Diagram 25
C. Classification Based on Salinity and Tidal Characteristics 27
1. Classification Based on Salinity Regime 27
2. Classification Based on Salinity Zonation 28
3. Classification Based on Tidal Range 29
D. Classification Based on Sedimentation 29
E. Classification Based on Ecosystem Energetics 30
1. Natural Stressed Systems of Wide Latitudinal Range 30
2. Natural Tropical Ecosystems of High Diversity 30
3. Natural Temperate Ecosystems with Seasonal Programming 30
4. Natural Arctic Ecosystems with Ice Stress 32
5. Emerging New Systems Associated with Man 32
6. Migrating Subsystems That Organize Areas 33
IV. Summary and Conclusions 34
References 36
Chapter 2
Origin and Longevity of Estuaries 41
I. Introduction 41
II. Secular Climate, Eustatic History, and Genesis of Estuaries 41
III. Causes of Secular Climatic Variations 45
A. General 45
B. Astronomical (Milankovitch) Theory of Climate Change — Variations
in the Orbit and Axis of Rotation of the Earth 46
IV. The Ephemeral Nature of Estuaries 48
V. Summary and Conclusions 51
References 52
Chapter 3
Physical Factors 57
I. Introduction 57
II. Physical Characteristics of Estuarine Waters 57
A. Tides and Tidal Currents 57
1. Tide-Generating Forces 57
2. Principal Types of Tides 59
3. Characteristics of Tides and Tidal Currents in Estuaries 61
B. Waves 66
1. Wind-Induced Waves 66
2. Internal Waves 69
3. Seiches 70
4. Tsunamis 70
C. Circulation and Mixing 70
1. Estuary Fronts, River Plumes, Interface Effects 71
2. Flushing Time 74
a. The Fraction of Freshwater Method 74
b. The Tidal Prism Method 75
c. The Modified Tidal Prism Method 75
II. Physical Parameters 77
A. Temperature 77
B. Light 79
C. Hydrostatic Pressure 82
IV. Summary and Conclusions 83
References 85
Chapter 4
Chemical Factors 89
I. Introduction 89
II. Salinity 89
A. In Oceans 89
B. In Estuaries 90
III. Composition of Dissolved Material 92
A. Dissolved Constituents of Rivers, Estuaries, and Oceans 92
B. Major Dissolved Constituents 98
1. Calcium and Magnesium 98
2. Sodium, Potassium, and Silicon 98
3. Sulfate 99
4. Chlorine 99
5. Fluorine and Bromine 99
6. Bicarbonate 100
C. Minor and Trace Elements 101
1. Minor Elements (Lithium and Molybdenum) 101
2. Trace Metals (Antimony, Arsenic, Cadmium, Chromium, Cobalt,
Copper, Iron, Lead, Manganese, Mercury, Nickel, Silver,
Vanadium, and Zinc) 101
a. Concentration and Behavior 101
b. Effects of Sediments on Trace Metals 103
c. Aquatic Organisms and Trace Metals 107
D. Nutrient Elements (Nitrogen, Phosphorus, Silicon) 109
1. Discussion 109
2. Nitrogen 114
3. Phosphorus 117
4. Silicon 121
IV. Chemical Behavior during Estuarine Mixing 124
A. Conservative-Nonconservative Behavior of Dissolved Constituents 124
B. Chemical Speciation 127
V. Dissolved Gases 129
A. General 129
B. Oxygen 130
C. Carbon Dioxide 133
VI. Summary and Conclusions 134
References 137
Chapter 5
Organic Matter 149
I. Introduction 149
II. Forms and Concentrations of Organic Matter 149
III. Composition of Organic Matter 150
A. Discussion 150
B. Dissolved Organic Matter 152
1. General 152
2. Humic Substances 153
C. Paniculate Organic Matter 158
1. Biotic Transformation and Energy Flow 158
2. Production 160
a. Autotrophic Production 160
i. General 160
ii. Phytoplankton 162
iii. Benthic Algae 162
iv. Seagrasses 166
v. Salt Marshes and Mangroves 168
b. Heterotrophic Production 171
i. Zooplankton 171
ii. Benthic Fauna 171
iii. Fishes 172
3. Dead Organisms and Detritus 176
IV. Transport of Organic Matter 178
A. Biotic Transports 178
B. Carbon Fluxes of Estuarine Wetlands 178
C. Carbon Budgets 182
V. The Carbon Cycle 185
A. Photosynthesis and Heterotrophic Consumption 185
B. Decomposition and Mineralization 186
VI. Summary and Conclusions 190
References 193
Chapter 6
Sediments 205
I. Introduction 205
II. Substratum Types 205
III. Properties of Sediments 205
A. Fundamental Properties 206
1. Composition 206
2. Grain Size 207
3. Grain Shape 211
a. Roundness 212
b. Sphericity 213
c. Surface Texture 213
d. Classification of Particle Shapes 213
B. Mass Properties 214
1. Fabric 214
a. Porosity 214
b. Permeability 214
c. Other Mass Properties 215
2. Biogenic Alteration of Mass Properties 215
IV. Sediment Erosion, Transportation, and Deposition 216
A. General Discussion 216
B. Mechanisms of Sediment Transport 218
1. Wave Action 218
2. Tidal Currents 222
a. Tidal Inlets 222
b. Ebb-Tidal Deltas 222
c. Flood-Tidal Deltas 224
V. Estuarine Water Movements and Sediment Dynamics 225
A. Tidal Movement 225
1. Coarse-Grained Sediment 225
2. Fine-Grained Sediment 226
B. Estuarine Circulation 228
VI. Bottom Sediments 230
A. Subtidal Deposits 230
B. Intertidal Deposits 231
C. Animal-Sediment Interactions 233
VII. Summary and Conclusions 236
References 239
Index 245