Ecology of Biological Invasions of North America and Hawaii

329 Pages·1986·9.24 MB·English

by  Harold A. Mooney, D. Simberloff (auth.), James A. Drake (eds.)

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Ecology of Biological Invasions
of North America and Hawaii
Edited by
Harold A. Mooney
James A. Drake
Contributors
H.G. Baker, EA. Bazzaz, D.L. Dahlsten, A.P. Dobson,
1.A. Drake, P.R. Ehrlich, 1.1. Ewel, S.P. Hamburg, R.N. Mack,
R.M. May, H.A. Mooney, M.P. Moulton, P.B. Moyle, G.H. Orians,
D. Pimentel, S.L. Pimm, P.l. Regal, 1. Roughgarden,
D. Simberloff, P.M. Vitousek
With 25 Figures
Springer-Verlag
New York Berlin Heidelberg London Paris Tokyo Hong Kong
Harold A. Mooney James A. Drake
Department of Biological Sciences Department of Biological Sciences
Stanford University Stanford Univeristy
Stanford, California 94305 USA Stanford, California 94305 USA
Cover illustration from Myers RL (1984) In: Ewel KC, Odum HT (eds), Cypress Swamps.
Reproduced with permission of University of Florida Press.
Library of Congress Cataloging in Publication Data
Ecology of biological invasions of North America
and Hawaii.
(Ecological studies ; v, 58)
Based on a symposium held in Asilomar, Calif.,
Oct. 21-25, 1984.
Includes bibliographies and index.
\. Animal introduction-North America-Congresses.
2. Plant introduction-North America-Congresses.
3. Pest introduction-North America-Congresses.
4. Ecology-North America-Congresses. I. Mooney,
Harold A. II. Drake, James A., 1954-
III. Series.
QH102.E284 1986 574.5'24 86-6630
Printed on acid-free paper.
© 1986 by Springer-Verlag New York Inc.
All rights reserved. No part of this book may be translated or reproduced in any form without
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The use of general descriptive names, trade names, trademarks, etc. in this publication, even if
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by the Trade Marks and Merchandise Marks Act, may accordingly be used freely by anyone.
Media conversion by David E. Seham Associates Inc., Metuchen, New Jersey.
987654321
ISBN-13:978-0-387-97153-7 e-ISBN-13:978-1-4612-4988-7
DOl: 10.1007/978-1-4612-4988-7
Preface
The diversity of the earth's climates superimposed upon a complex configuration
of physical features has provided the conditions for the evolution of a remarkable
array of living things which are linked together into complex ecosystems. The
kinds of organisms comprising the ecosystems of the world, and the nature of
their interactions, have constantly changed through time due to coevolutionary
interactions along with the effects of a continually changing physical environ-
ment.
In recent evolutionary time there has been a dramatic and ever-accelerating
rate of change in the configuration of these ecosystems because of the increasing
influence of human beings. These changes range from subtle modifications
caused by anthropogenically induced alterations in atmospheric properties to
the total destruction of ecosystems. Many of these modifications have provided
the fuel, food, and fiber which have allowed the expansion of human populations.
Unfortunately, there have been many unanticipated changes which accompanied
these modifications which have had effects detrimental to human welfare in-
cluding substantial changes in water and air quality. For example, the use of
high-sulfur coal to produce energy in parts of North America is altering the
properties of freshwater lakes and forests because of acidification.
The massive restructuring of the biotic components of these systems has
been to a large extent purposeful with, for example, the substitution of a select
few plants and animals of direct human use, for an array of those which are
not. The rate of substitution has increased as human populations have grown
vi Preface
and as the means of transport of humans and their favored domesticated or-
ganisms has improved. Through evolutionary times there have been organisms,
such as migratory birds and animals, which in their yearly cycles transcended
the climatic boundaries of a given ecosystem unintentionally carrying with them
individuals and propagules of other species. People have increased this inter-
change many-fold, often, and importantly, bringing individuals from one eco-
system type into a comparable one between which there has been essentially
no interchange in the past. Often such interchanges occurred when these natural
systems were most vulnerable, having been disrupted by human activity. Un-
fortunately, it has now become clear that in many cases these purposeful in-
terchanges have not had the intended effect and further they have been ac-
companied by many accidental interchanges, some of which have had disastrous
economic and environmental impacts.
Because of the ability of invading species to alter the structure and function
of communities and ecosystems an understanding of invasion processes is es-
sential. SCOPE (Scientific Committee qn Problems of the Environment) of the
International Council of Scientific Unions (ICSU) has established an interna-
tional program to investigate the ecology of biological invasions. This volume
represents a component of this program and is based on a symposium which
was held in Asilomar, California, on October 21-25, 1984, to explore biological
invasions into North America and Hawaii.
The composition of the biota of North America and Hawaii, almost undis-
turbed until two centuries ago, has been changing at an unprecedented rate due
primarily to the disruptions of natural systems by human activities coupled
with both the deliberate and accidental introduction of foreign species. In this
volume, some indications of these changes and their causes are given for selected
North American geographic regions. For example, Florida is a landscape where
introduced species are extremely common, comprising up to 25% of certain
taxonomic groups. Some of these introduced species have had a significant
effect on native plant and animal populations, in several cases eliminating them
completely. The lowlands of Hawaii provide another example of habitat which
have been modified extensively and are now composed almost entirely of in-
troduced species. Similarly, in California coastal regions introduced species
make up almost 50 percent of the floras. In the Intermountain West, ecosystem
structure has been totally altered through the influence of a few particularly
successful introduced plant species.
Disruptions of the natural systems are often responsible for the increased
success of these introductions, as for example in Florida, where there has been
clearing, altered burning cycles, and large drainage projects. An altered grazing
regime by the introduction of domesticated animals and an infusion of new
plant introductions triggered the massive change in the intermountain steppe
vegetation. Similarly, grazing and agriculture have drastically altered the Cal-
ifornia coastal ecosystems. No doubt these disruptions will continue and become
ever more pervavsive, resulting in large-scale rearrangements of the biota. As
discussed in this book, methods of control of invaders are costly and not always
successful.
Preface vii
What are the impact of these invaders? Such a question is comparatively
easy to answer for economically important crop ecosystems where impacts of
"pests" can be measured in terms of reductions in yield and hence given a
market value. For example, estimates for yearly economic losses in the United
States are in the order of billions of dollars as calculated by Pimentel in this
volume. Information on impacts on natural ecosystems is not readily available
nor is it so easily quantified. Vitousek shows, however, how such central eco-
system properties as productivity, soil structure, and nutrient and water cycling
can be strongly altered by invading animals and plants. His analysis provides
an important beginning for assessing ecosystem-level impact of invaders.
A question addressed by a number of the contributors to this volume is
whether predictions can be made as to which particular species will be successful
invaders. Certainly, a central question because most natural systems are in
some state of disruption and new taxa are continually being introduced through
one mode or another. It becomes obvious from reading the diverse contributions
in this book that we as yet do not have the capacity to make precise predictions
of the potential establishment and success of a given invading species. Some
authors maintain that there is little likelihood in the near future of gaining this
capacity. Others are more optimistic and maintain that species with certain
suites of physiological and population attributes are more likely to invade than
others and that from such information a risk analysis can be developed. How-
ever, it is now becoming apparent that the information required for predicting
invasion success will include species properties, interactions between species,
and properties of the system being invaded. Hence, the numbers of variables
to consider in predicting the success of any potential invader in a given eco-
system is great and the task of analysis is not trivial. Yet the effort is surely
worthwhile in view of the increased rate of introductions of foreign genetic
material into native ecosystems including perhaps organisms which have been
purposefully modified through genetic engineering. Not all successful invaders
will have a substantial ecosystem impact but we must be forewarned of those
that might. It is hoped that this volume will provide some indication of what
is known about invasion processes in general, as well as giving directions for
future study.
H.A. Mooney
J.A. Drake
Contents
Section 1 The Patterns of Invasions: Systematic Perspective
1. Introduced Insects: A Biogeographic and Systematic Prespective 3
D. SIMBERLOFF
1.1 Introduction 3
1.2 Biotic Resistance of Island Faunas 8
1.3 A Null Hypothesis 11
1.4 Preliminary Tests 13
1.5 Biotic Resistance in Disturbed and Undisturbed Habitats 18
1.6 Biotic Resistance and the Build-up of Entomofaunas 18
1.7 Further Considerations 21
1.8 Conclusions 23
1.9 Acknowledgments 24
1. 10 References 24
2. Fish Introductions into North America: Patterns and Ecological Impact 27
P.B. MOYLE
2.1 Introduction 27
2.2 Freshwater Introductions 28
2.3 Saltwater Introductions 34
2.4 Estuarine Introductions 35
2.5 Fish Assemblages Containing Introduced Species 36
2.6 Conclusions 38
x Contents
2.7 Acknowledgments 40
2.8 References 40
3. Patterns of Plant Invasion in North America 44
H.G. BAKER
3.1 Introduction 44
3.2 Origins and Modes of Spread of Weeds 44
3.3 Different Kinds of Invaders 46
3.4 Susceptible Ecosystems 48
3.5 Patterns of Spread 49
3.6 Minor and Major Weeds 51
3.7 Ecotypical Differentiation 52
3.8 Relations between Species: Cakile 53
3.9 Conclusions 54
3.10 Epilogue 55
3.11 Acknowledgments 55
3.12 References 55
4. Patterns of Invasions by Pathogens and Parasites 58
A.P. DOBSON and R.M. MAY
4.1 Introduction 58
4.2 Invasions by Parasites with Direct Life Cycles 59
4.3 Invasions by Parasites with Indirect Life Cycles 63
4.4 Comparisons between Parasites with Direct and Indirect Life
Cycles 65
4.5 Parasites and Two or More Hosts 66
4.6 Coevolution of Hosts and Parasites 71
4.7 Conclusions 72
4.8 Acknowledgments 73
4.9 References 73
4.10 Appendix 75
Section 2 Attributes of Invaders
5. Which Animal Will Invade? 79
P.R. EHRLICH
5.1 Introduction 79
5.2 What Is an Invader? 80
5.3 Why One and Not Another? 81
5.4 Noninvaders: Some Lessons from Checkerspot Butterflies 85
5.5 The Question of Genetics 87
5.6 Are There Any Rules? 88
5.7 Chance and Dispersal 90
5.8 Conclusions 91
5.9 Acknowledgments 92
5.10 References 92
Contents xi
6. Life History of Colonizing Plants: Some Demographic, Genetic, and
Physiological Features 96
F.A. BAzzAz
6.1 Introduction 96
6.2 Classification and Definition 97
6.3 Population Growth Rates and Geographical Spread
of Colonizing Plant Species 98
6.4 The Genetics of Colonizing Species 100
6.5 Physiological Ecology of Colonizing Species 102
6.6 Niche Relations and Competitive Abilities of Colonizing
Species 105
6.7 Conclusions 107
6.8 References 108
7. Models of Genetically Engineered Organisms and Their Ecological
Impact 111
P.J. REGAL
7.1 Introduction 111
7.2 A Brief History of the Controversy 112
7.3 Levels of Risk 113
7.4 Models Proposed to Predict Ecological Consequences of
Genetically Engineered Organisms 114
7.5 Alien Species Issues Are Important to Genetic Engineering 121
7.6 The Vectors: Implications 122
7.7 Conclusions 125
7.8 Acknowledgments 127
7.9 References 127
Section 3 Site Characteristics Promoting Invasions and System Impact of
Invaders
8. Site Characteristics Favoring Invasions 133
G.H.ORIANS
8.1 Introductions 133
8.2 Ecosystems Are in the Mind of the Beholder 135
8.3 Disturbance Is Also in the Mind of the Beholder 136
8.4 Biotic Interactions and Invasions 140
8.5 Time and the Invasion of Ecological Communities 142
8.6 Conclusions 145
8.7 References 145
9. Biological Invasions of Plants and Animals in Agriculture and Forestry 149
D. PIMENTEL
9.1 Introduction 149
9.2 Weed Invaders 150
9.3 Insect Invaders 153
9.4 Plant Pathogen Invaders 156