Ecology and Decline of Red Spruce in the Eastern United States PDF
Preview Ecology and Decline of Red Spruce in the Eastern United States
Ecological Studies Analysis and Synthesis Edited by W.D. Billings, Durham (USA) F. Galley, Athens (USA) O.L. Lange, Wiirzburg (FRG) J.S. Olson, Oak Ridge (USA) H. Remmert, Marburg (FRG) Volume 96 Ecological Studies Volume 78 Volume 88 Agroecology: Researching the Pinnipeds and El Nino: Responses to Ecological Basis for Sustainable Environmental Stress (1991) Agriculture (1990) Edited by F. Trillmich and K.A. Ono Edited by S.R. Gliessman Volume 89 Volume 79 Plantago: A Multidisciplinary Study Remote Sensing of Biosphere (1992) Functioning (1990) Edited by P.I.C. Kuiper and M. Bos Edited by R.I. Hobbs and H.A. Mooney Volume 90 Volume 80 Biogeochemistry of a Subalpine Plant Biology of the Basin and Range Ecosystem: Loch Vale Watershed (1992) (1990) Edited by Iill Baron Edited by C.B. Osmond, L.F. Pitelka, and G.M. Hidy Volume 91 Atmospheric Deposition and Volume 81 Forest Nutrient Cycling (1992) Nitrogen in Terrestrial Ecosystems Edited by D.W. Iohnson and (1990) S.E. Lindberg By C.O. Tamm Volume 92 Volume 82 Landscape Boundaries: Consequences Quantitative Methods in Landscape for Biotic Diversity and Ecological Ecology (1990) Flows (1992) Edited by M.G. Turner and R.H. Edited by A.I. Hansen and Gardner F. di Castri Volume 83 Volume 93 The Rivers of Florida (1990) Fire in South African Mountain Fynbos: Edited by R.I. Livingston Ecosystem, Community, and Species Response at Swartboskloof (1992) Volume 84 Edited by B.W. van Wilgen, D.M. Fire in the Tropical Biota: Ecosystem Richardson, F.I. Kruger, and H.I. van Processes and Global Challenges (1990) Hensbergen Edited by J.G. Goldammer Volume 94 Volume 85 The Ecology of Aquatic Hyphomycetes The Mosaic·Cycle Concept of (1992) Ecosystems (1991) Edited by F. Barlocher Edited by H. Remmert Volume 95 Volume 86 Palms in Forest Ecosystems of Amazonia Ecological Heterogeneity (1991) (1992) Edited by 1. Kolasa and By F. Kahn and 1.·1. DeGranville S.T.A. Pickett Volume 96 Volume 87 Ecology and Decline of Red Spruce in Horses and Grasses: The Nutritional the Eastern United States (1992) Ecology of Equids, and Their Impact on Edited by C. Eagar and M.B. Adams the Camargue (1991) By P. Duncan Christopher Eagar Mary Beth Adams Editors Ecology and Decline of Red Spruce in the Eastern United States Contributors M.B. Adams C. Cogbill E.R. Cook D.H. DeHayes C. Eagar 1.J. Fernandez K.F. Jensen A.H. Johnson D.W. Johnson R.J. Kohut S.B. McLaughlin M.M. Miller-Weeks V.A. Mohnen N.S. Nicholas D.R. Peart G.A. Schier T.G. Siccama P.S. White S.M. Zedaker With 90 illustrations, 2 in color Springer-Verlag New York Berlin Heidelberg London Paris Tokyo Hong Kong Barcelona Budapest Christopher Eagar Mary Beth Adams USDA Forest Service USDA Forest Service Northeastern Forest Experiment Northeastern Forest Experiment Station Station P.O. Box 640 Timber and Watershed Laboratory Durham, NH 03824 P.O. Box 404-Nursery Bottom USA Parsons, WV 26287 USA Library of Congress Cataloging-in-Publication Data Ecology and decline of red spruce in the eastern United States edited by Christopher Eagar and Mary Beth Adams. p. cm. - (Ecological studies; v. 96) Includes bibliographical references and index. ISBN-13: 978-1-4612-7714-9 e-ISBN-13: 978-1-4612-2906-3 001: 10.1 007/978-1-4612-2906-3 1. Red spruce decline-East (U.S.) 2. Red spruce-East (U.S.) Effect of air pollution on. 3. Red spruce-East (U.S.)-Ecology. 4. Forest declines-East (U.S.) 5. Forest ecology-East (U.S.) I. Eagar, Christopher. II. Adams, Mary Beth, 1958- III. Series. SB608.R33E36 1992 585' .2-dc20 91-46553 Printed on acid-free paper. © 1992 Springer-Verlag New York, Inc. Softcover reprint of the hardcover 1s t edition 1992 Copyright is not claimed for works by employees of the United States government. All rights reserved. This work may not be translated or copied in whole or in part with out the written permission of the published (Springer-Verlag New York, Inc., 175 Fifth Avenue, New York, NY 10010, USA), except for brief excerpts in connection with reviews or scholarly analysis. Use in connection with any form of information storage and retrieval, electronic adaptation, computer software, or by similar or dissimilar methodology now known or hereafter developed is forbidden. The use of general descriptive names, trade names, trademarks, etc., in this publication, even if the former are not especially identified, is not to be taken as a sign that such names, as understood by the Trade Marks and Merchandise Marks Act, may accordingly be used freely by anyone. Production managed by Ellen Seham; manufacturing supervised by Jacqui Ashri. Typeset by Best-set Typesetter Ltd., Chai Wan, Hong Kong. 98765 4 3 2 1 Preface In the early 1980s there were several published reports of recent, unexplained increases in mortality of red spruce in the Adirondack Mountains and the northern Appalachian Mountains of the eastern United States. These reports coincided with documentation of reductions in radial growth of several species of pine in the southeastern United States, and with the severe, rapid, and widespread decline of Norway spruce, silver fir, and some hardwoods in central Europe. In all of these instances, atmospheric deposition was hypothesized as the cause of the decline. (Throughout this volume, we use the term "decline" to refer to a loosely synchronized regional-scale deterioration of tree health which is brought about by a combination of stress factors. These may be biotic or abiotic in nature, and the combinations may differ from site to site.) Heated public debate about the causes and possible cures for these forest declines ensued. Through the course of this debate, it became clear that information about forest health and air pollution effects on forests was inadequate to meet policymakers' needs. Ecology and Decline of Red Spruce in the Eastern United States addresses that gap for eastern spruce fir forests and represents the culmination of a great deal of research conducted in recent years. The focus is on red spruce because the decline of red spruce was both dramatic and inexplicable and because of the great amount of information gathered on red spruce. Section I of this book examines the characteristics of spruce-fir forests VI Preface in the eastern United States, including descriptions of the history and ecology of these forests, the soils commonly found under these forests, and the atmospheric conditions these forests experience. An extensive discussion of recent changes in forest health and growth trends concludes this section. Section II presents experimental results from many air pollution effects studies, and evaluates mechanisms of air pollution effects on red spruce. Four specific mechanisms are evaluated: soil-mediated effects, foliar leaching of nutrients and direct foliar injury, altered cold tolerance, and effects on carbon allocation and associated physiological processes. Section III develops a synthesis of the state of knowledge regarding red spruce decline at high elevations in the eastern United States. The discussion was developed by the authors of the first two sections, under the leadership of Drs. Arthur Johnson and Samuel McLaughlin, and represents a consensus of the listed contributors. Much of the research discussed in this volume was funded by the Spruce-Fir Research Cooperative of the National Acid Precipitation Assessment Program's Forest Response Program. The Spruce-Fir Research Cooperative was formed in March 1985 and was jointly planned, man aged, and funded by the USDA Forest Service and the United States Environmental Protection Agency. Its mission was to explain possible air pollution-related changes in the structure, function and composition of spruce-fir forests. In particular, the Cooperative addressed two questions: (1) What are the effects of air pollutants and acidic deposition on eastern spruce-fir forests? (2) Why are red spruce declining at high elevations? During its six years of existence, the Spruce-Fir Research Cooperative funded $16 million of research, involving more than 43 projects and 120 investigators from many different institutions. Affiliated with the Spruce Fir Research Cooperative were the Mountain Cloud Chemistry Program and the National Vegetation Survey, which provided valuable informa tion on atmospheric conditions and forest condition, respectively. Other organizations that sponsored research on red spruce summarized in this compendium include the National Council of the Paper Industry for Air and Stream Improvement, the Electric Power Research Institute predominantly through its Integrated Forest Study (IFS)-the Tennessee Valley Authority, and the Mellon Foundation. Through the efforts of many investigators in these programs and others, a clearer picture has been drawn of the ecology and decline of red spruce. The evolution of the information presented in this volume demonstrates the value and success of diligent scientific endeavor for addressing critical policy issues. Christopher Eagar Mary Beth Adams Acknowledgments Production of a book of this scope requires the cooperation and assist ance of many individuals. The hard work of the individual chapter authors, and the diligence in particular of Dr. Arthur Johnson and Dr. Sandy McLaughlin in working toward consensus were essential to the success of this book. The following individuals served as peer reviewers for one of the first nine chapters: David H. Alban, Robert A. Amundson, Ralph Baumgardner, Russell D. Briggs, Neil Cape, Phillip Dougherty, George M. Hidy, Jay S. Jacobson, J. Dev Joslin, Richard Klein, James McClenahan, Imants Millers, Kevin Percy, David Peterson, Daniel D. Richter, John Skelly, Kim C. Steiner, Richard Tinus, and John Witter. Their reviews greatly contributed to the high quality of these chapters. Special thanks go to David Grigal and Ellis Cowling for reviewing the first draft of the book in its entirety. The dedicated clerical assistance of Dolores Beckford, Cass Cloak, and Marie Lanza is also greatly appre ciated. Layne Godwin assisted with word processing during final revisions. Support for preparation of this book, and for much of the research discussed in this book, was provided by the Spruce-Fir Research Co operative, of the joint U.S. Environmental Protection Agency-USDA Forest Service Forest Response Program of the National Acid Precipita tion Assessment Program. The support of the Northeastern Forest Experiment Station of the USDA Forest Service was particularly helpful Vlll Acknowledgments during the preparation of this book and is acknowledged. This book has not been subject to Environmental Protection Agency or Forest Service policy review and should not be construed to represent the policies of either agency. Contents Preface V Acknowledgments VII Contributors XI Section I. Characterization of the Condition of Eastern U.S. Spruce-Fir Forests 1. Spruce-Fir Forests of Eastern North America 3 Peter S. White and Charles V. Cogbill 2. Characterization of Eastern U.S. Spruce-Fir Soils 40 Ivan J. Fernandez 3. Atmospheric Deposition and Pollutant Exposure of Eastern U.S. Forests 64 Volker A. Mohnen 4. Condition and Recent Trends in High-Elevation Red Spruce Populations 125 David R. Peart, N.S. Nicholas, Shephard M. Zedaker, Margaret M. Miller-Weeks, and Thomas G. Siccama 5. The Dendroecology of Red Spruce Decline 192 Edward R. Cook and Shephard M. Zedaker x Contents Section II. Air Pollution and Atmospheric Deposition Effects on Red Spruce: Evaluation of Mechanisms 6. Soil Mediated Effects of Atmospheric Deposition on Eastern U.S. Spruce-Fir Forests 235 Dale W. Johnson and Ivan J. Fernandez 7. Atmospheric Deposition Effects on Foliar Injury and Foliar Leaching in Red Spruce 271 George A. Schier and Keith F. Jensen 8. Winter Injury and Developmental Cold Tolerance of Red Spruce 295 Donald H. DeHayes 9. The Effects of Atmospheric Deposition and Ozone on Carbon Allocation and Associated Physiological Processes in Red Spruce 338 Samuel B. McLaughlin and Robert J. Kohut Section III. Why are Red Spruce Declining at High Elevations? A Synthesis of Epidemiological and Mechanistic Studies 10. Synthesis and Conclusions from Epidemiological and Mechanistic Studies of Red Spruce Decline 385 A.H. Johnson, S.B. McLaughlin, M.B. Adams, E.R. Cook, D.H. DeHayes, C. Eagar, 1.1. Fernandez, D.W. Johnson, R.J. Kohut, V.A. Mohnen, N.S. Nicholas, D.R. Peart, G.A. Schier, and P.S. White Index 413
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