Ecological Restoration of Aquatic and Semi-Aquatic Ecosystems in the Netherlands (NW Europe)

238 Pages·2002·8.901 MB·English

by  P. H. Nienhuis, R. D. Gulati (auth.), P. H. Nienhuis, R. D. Gulati (eds.)

Ecological Restoration of Aquatic and Semi-Aquatic
Ecosystems in the Netherlands (NW Europe)
Developments in Hydrobiology 166
Series editor
H. J. Dumont
Ecological Restoration of Aquatic and
Semi-Aquatic Ecosystems in the
Netherlands (NW Europe)
Edited by
P.H. Nienhuis1'2 & R.D. Gulati2
1 Department of Environmental Studies, University of Nijmegen, The Netherlands
2 Centre for Limnology, Netherlands Institute of Ecology, Nieuwersluis, The Netherlands
Reprinted from Hydrobiologia, volume 478 (2002)
Springer-Science+Business Media, B.V.
Library of Congress Cataloging-in-Publication Data
A C.I.P. Catalogue record for this book is available from the Library of Congress.
ISBN 978-90-481-6174-4 ISBN 978-94-017-1335-1 (eBook)
DOI 10.1007/978-94-017-1335-1
Printed an acid-free paper
AII Rights reserved
© 2002 Springer Science+Business Media Dordrecht
Originally published by Kluwer Academic Publishers in 2002
No part of the material protected by this copyright notice may be reproduced
or utilized in any form or by any means, electronic or mechanical,
including photocopying, record ing or by any information storage and
retrieval system, without written permission from the copyright owner.
v
TABLE OF CONTENTS
INTRODUCTION
Ecological restoration of aquatic and semi-aquatic ecosystems in the Netherlands: an
introduction
P.H. Nienhuis & R.D. Gulati 1-6
CASE STUDIES
Ecological restoration in coastal areas in the Netherlands: concepts, dilemmas and
some examples
V.N. de Jonge, D.J. de Jong 7-28
Restoration of salt marshes in the Netherlands
J.P. Bakker, P. Esselink, K.S. Dijkema, WE. van Duin, D.J. de Jong 29-51
Ecological rehabilitation of the lowland basin of the river Rhine (NW Europe)
P.H. Nienhuis, A.D. Buijse, R.S.E.W. Leuven, A.J.M. Smits, R.J.W. de Nooij, E.M. Samborska 53-72
Lakes in the Netherlands, their origin, eutrophication and restoration: state-of-the-art
review
Ramesh D. Gulati, Ellen van Dank 73-106
The restoration of fens in the Netherlands
Leon P.M. Lamers, Alfons J.P. Smolders, Jan G.M. Roelofs 107-130
Towards a decision support system for stream restoration in the Netherlands: an
overview of restoration projects and future needs
P.F.M. Verdonschot, R.C. Nijboer 131-148
Restoration of brook valley meadows in the Netherlands
A.P. Grootjans, J.P. Bakker, A.J.M. Jansen, R.H. Kemmers 149-170
Restoration of aquatic macrophyte vegetation in acidified and eutrophicated shallow
soft water wetlands in the Netherlands
J.G.M. Roelofs, E. Brouwer, R. Bobbink 171-180
vi
Restoration of coastal dune slacks in the Netherlands
A.P Grootjans, H.W.T. Geelen, A.J.M. Jansen, E.J. Lammerts 181-203
A review of the past and present status of anadromous fish species in the Netherlands:
is restocking the Rhine feasible?
S.J. de Groot 205-218
SYNTHESIS
The state of the art of aquatic and semi-aquatic ecological restoration projects in the
Netherlands
PH. Nienhuis, J.P Bakker, A.P Grootjans, R.D. Gulati, V.N. de Jonge 219-233
Hydrobiologia 478: vii, 2002.
P.H. Nienhuis & R.D. Gulati (eds), Ecological Restoration ofAquatic and vii
Semi-Aquatic Ecosystems in the Netherlands ( NW Europe).
Preface
'The Netherlands Water Land' is no commonplace cliche. This small, low-lying delta country, mainly a sedi
mentary deposit by a number of large European rivers, and situated on the North Sea, contains a large diversity
of water bodies. These include both stagnant water and running water; waters in the climax stage of growing
solid by peat formation, and shallow, exposed open water bodies; wide, slowly running, turbid rivers and narrow,
overshadowed, clear rivulets. In 1989 a symposium was held, under the title 'Netherlands-Wetlands', aiming at
presenting an overview of our present knowledge of the structure and functioning of the typical wetlands in the
country. The proceedings were published in Hydrobiologia 265 ( 1993), as well as in Developments in Hydrobiology
88. Major threats to the Dutch wetlands were analysed, and among them the annihilation of original ecosystems,
the fragmentation of landscapes, and the acidification and eutrophication of waters and sediments. Emerging
perspectives of recovery and restoration, together with a plea for a better insight into the governing ecological
processes, were postulated in 1989.
The present multi-author volume, with its twelve main chapters, can be seen as a self-evident successor to
the results of the 'Netherlands-Wetlands' symposium. The focus is now fully on the achievements and failures of
ecological rehabilitation measures over the past 25 years. Many of these are, indeed, rather impressive. Restoration
ecology appears to be a matter of trial and error: in general, progressive restoration endeavours are greatly bene
fiting from experiences in the past. Many of the completed studies now exemplify an integration of hydrological,
geomorphological and ecological knowledge. Brian Moss, a well-known aquatic restoration ecologist stated in
Environmental Conservation 27 (2000): "The unit of a freshwater system is not defined by the wetted perimeter of
the lake or river but by the limits of the catchment area from which the water is drawn. Conservation of functional
values is thus not possible without control of the way the catchment is managed". This general awareness is
more and more becoming the dominant way of thinking among the Dutch water policymakers. The stakeholders'
attitude is changing towards retreating and abandoning economic activities from vulnerable catchment areas. The
trend is now to strive after economic 'win-win' situations, and to reduce human-induced flood hazards in favour
of the rehabilitation of more 'natural' wetlands. Sustainable management of aquatic ecosystems means that user
functions of the catchments (e.g. navigation, agriculture, urbanisation, recreation) should be accommodated to the
dynamics of the natural wetland system, and not the other way around.
The contributions to this book are from invited Dutch experts, all having long standing experience in their
respective fields. The authors are affiliated to the state and university research institutions in the Netherlands where
restoration ecology and ecological restoration are important disciplines of research, the University of Nijmegen,
the State University of Groningen, the University of Utrecht, the Netherlands Institute of Ecology, Alterra and
the Netherlands Institute for Fisheries Research. The manuscripts were peer-reviewed by anonymous experts,
following the procedures set out for Hydrobiologia.
PIET H. NIENHUIS, Nijmegen
RAMESH D. GULATI, Nieuwersluis
Hydrobiologia 478: 1-6, 2002.
P.H. Nienhuis & R.D. Gulati (eds), Ecological Restoration of Aquatic and
Semi-Aquatic Ecosystems in the Netherlands (NW Europe).
© 2002 Kluwer Academic Publishers.
Ecological restoration of aquatic and semi-aquatic ecosystems in the
Netherlands: an introduction*
P.H. Nienhuisl.2 & R.D. Gulati2
1D epartment of Environmental Studies, Faculty of Science, Mathematics and Informatics,
University of Nijmegen, P.O. Box 9010, 6500 GL Nijmegen, The Netherlands
2Centrefor Limnology, Netherlands Institute of Ecology, Rijksstraatweg 6, 3631 AC Nieuwersluis,
The Netherlands
Key words: ecological restoration, rehabilitation, aquatic and semi-aquatic ecosystems, The Netherlands
Abstract
In 1989, a symposium was held under the title 'Netherlands-Wetlands', aiming at the presentation of the state of
the art of the existing knowledge of structure and functioning of wetlands, characteristic for the Netherlands. The
present multi-author volume can be seen as a logical successor of the results of this symposium. The focus is now
fully on the results of ecological restoration measures over the past 25 years. The main question to be answered
is what makes a project a success in terms of ecological performance, and when are we speaking about a failure?
The present volume contains 10 case studies, roughly covering all aquatic and semi-aquatic ecosystems in the
Netherlands.
History sea took more than half of the land that was present in
the tenth century. From the 17th century onwards, the
The pristine coastal environment of the Netherlands, reverse process took place: man successfully gained
i.e. before noticeable human impact, was dominated land from the sea and started with the draining and the
by a continuous sea-level rise since the last glacial reclamation of lakes (Edelman, 1974). In the course of
period, roughly 10 000 to 15 000 years ago. The re the centuries, the artificial Netherlands originated, of
construction of Zagwijn (1986; Fig. 1), depicting the which more than half would not exist without levees,
geographic situation some 2000 years ago, shows an dikes and pumping engines. The present map of the
extensive area of raised bogs behind a solid dune Netherlands (Fig. 2; Schultz, 1982) shows that 60%
ridge, which separated the North Sea from the dry of the country have to be protected against flooding,
land. Cultivation of these raised bogs by man, from either from the sea (50%) or from the rivers (1 0% ).
the tenth century onwards, drastically changed that There are three major factors to be mentioned that
picture. For the purpose of the cultivation of their altered the original, natural situation of aquatic eco
agricultural products, and locally for the purpose of systems in the Netherlands. ( 1) The cold temperate
excavating peat for fuel, the colonists were digging climate governing the seasonal changes in the Neth
extensive networks of ditches and trenches in order erlands has led to a hydrological regime of low water
to drain the raised bogs. Consequently the remaining levels in summer and high water levels during winter.
peat layers oxidised, leading to compacting of the soil. These natural water level changes have been disturbed
We might say that the early inhabitants of the Nether by management actions of man over the past I 000
lands, unaware of the consequences, made the raised years or so. Especially during winter, water tables are
bog areas accessible for the rising sea. By lowering the artificially kept as low as possible, in order to prevent
surface level of the ground, and the groundwater table, inaccessibility of low-lying agricultural grounds early
storm floods from the sea could have an increasing im in spring. Another aspect is the general lowering of
pact on the remaining land. Until the 15th century the the water table by water distraction for all kinds of
purposes, such as drinking water and water for indus
* NIOO Contribution no. 3053. trial purposes, facilitated by a complicated artificial
2
llfl
dunes
/::;:;:J
coastal marshes
- salt marshes
B
river flood plains
~:(~~ fen mires
•:,,•:•, bogs
~
tidalflats
t: ·:·:·: :.:j dry lands
0 50
km
Figure 1. Reconstruction of the distribution of major aquatic ecosystems in the Netherlands, approximately 2000 BP (derived from Zagwijn,
1986).
drainage system, covering the entire country. (2) The In 1989, a symposium was held, under the title
conversion of natural aquatic ecosystems into drained 'Netherlands-Wetlands', aiming at the presentation of
agricultural land was a major cultural operation over the state of the art of the existing knowledge of struc
the past centuries. Inaccessible wetlands and marshes ture and function of wetland types characteristic for
were considered as 'wasteland', and were cultivated. the Netherlands (Fig. 3). The proceedings of the sym
Of the total area of land in the Netherlands 60% was posium (Best & Bakker, 1993) offered much informa
agricultural land in 1996, but the tendency is now tion about the status of the aquatic ecosystems, among
to set aside agricultural land in favour of nature de which many were liable to severe environmental de
velopment (CBS/RIVM, 1999). (3) Compared with terioration. Only little progress about rehabilitation
the geographic situation of roughly a thousand years measures proper could be given in 1989. The present
ago, massive habitat loss took place, owing to nu volume (Nienhuis & Gulati, 2002) can be seen as a
merous causes. Obvious causes are the regulation of logical successor of the results of the symposium in
rivers and water courses, the reclamation of wetlands 1989. Now, 12 years later, a lot of additional ecolo
for infrastructure and urban sprawl, pollution with gical research has been done, and the focus is more on
persistent and toxic chemicals, acidification by at the results of ecological restoration measures.
mospheric deposits, eutrophication by enriched river
water, desiccation (see argument 1), and total loss or
fragmentation of habitats.
3
Table I. Geographic position of the ecosystems covered by the various authors of this volume (Nienhuis & Gulati, 2002), using the legends of
Figures 2 and 3
Author Geographic area
DeJonge & de Jong (2002) Tidal flats, estuaries, saline lakes (Fig. 3)
Bakker eta!. (2002) Salt marshes (Fig. 3)
Nienhuis eta!. (2002) Large rivers (Figs 2 & 3)
De Groot (2002) Large rivers (Figs 2 & 3)
Gulati & van Donk (2002) Freshwater lakes, fen mires (Fig. 3)
Lamers eta!. (2002) Fen mires (Fig. 3)
Verdonschot & Nijboer (2002) Streams originating on Pleistocene sandy grounds (white,
Fig. 2)
Grootjans eta!. (2002a) Brooks originating on Pleistocene sandy grounds (white,
Fig. 2)
Roelofs et a!. (2002) Raised bogs, soft-water bodies on Pleistocene sandy
grounds (white, Fig. 2; Fig. 3)
Grootjans et a!. (2002b) Coastal dune slacks (Fig. 3)
Table 2. Typology of freshwater bodies (LNV, 200 I) and saline water bodies in the Netherlands, listed together with the authors from the
present volume, covering the ecological restoration of the water bodies distinguished
Typology of water bodies Covered by
J. Sources of streams and brooks Verdonschot & Nijboer (2002); Grootjans et al.
(2002a)
2. Streams and brooks Vcrdonschot & Nijboer (2002); Grootjans et a!.
(2002a)
3. Rivers Nienhuis eta!. (2002; de Groot (2002)
4. Brackish inland waters Lamers et a!. (2002); de Jonge & de Jong (2002)
5. Small pools
6. Ditches
7. Fens Lamers et al. (2002)
8. Sand-and gravel-mining pits
9. Lakes Gulati & van Donk (2002)
10. Canals
II. Dune slacks Grootjans et a!. (2002b)
12. Pleistocene soft-water bodies Roelofs et a!. (2002)
13. Estuaries and tidal waters DeJonge & de Jong (2002); Bakker et a!. (2002)
14. Large brackish lakes DeJonge & de Jong (2002)
Ecological restoration, theory and practice tion ecology should bother about having a conceptual
framework. Restoration scientists, however, usually
It is only very recently, arbitrarily some 25 years stress the necessity to define and agree upon com
ago, that the tide of ecological deterioration has been mon targets in restoration projects (Hobbs & Norton,
turned in the Netherlands, and ecological rehabilita 1996; Pfadenhauer & Grootjans, 1999; Bakker et al.,
tion of disturbed ecosystems is in full swing now. In 2000). They advocate the use of clearly defined target
this volume, the status of Dutch aquatic restoration communities and/or target species to measure success.
projects will be presented. All rehabilitation measures A definition of targets, however, depends to a large
will be placed in a historical and ecological perspect degree on the level of ambition of particular recon
ive. Ecological restoration often seems a process of struction projects. In all cases, this comprises partly
trial and error, and practitioners proclaim why restora- or completely structural and functional return of the